//;-:  V'' 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arcinive 

in  2007  witin  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/englisliofbusinesOOsnydricli 


THE     ENGLISH 

OF 

BUSINESS 


BY 

FEANKLYN  B.  SNYDER 

AND 

RONALD  S.  CRANE 

NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 

HARCOURT,  BRACE  AND  COMPANY 

1921 


COPYRIGHT,   1921,   BY 
HARCOURT,  BRACE   AND   COMPANY,  INC. 


.*••<*       • 


PRINTED  IN  THE  U.  S.   A, 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTBB  PAGE 

I.    The  Importance  of  English  in  Business    ....  1 

II.    Matters  of  Form 7 

Spelling 7 

Abbreviations 11 

Numbers       15 

Capitalization 17 

Punctuation       18 

III.  Grammatical  Difficulties       47 

Pronouns       47 

Verbs        53 

Conjunctions 68 

Idioms 69 

Glossary  of  Grammatical  Terms 73 

IV.  A  Business  Man's  Vocabulary 81 

The  Ideal  of  a  Good  Vocabulary       82 

The  Shortcomings  of  the  Average  Vocabulary     ...  88 

Methods  of  Enlarging  One's  Vocabulary 95 

Adaptation  of  Vocabulary 97 

V.    The  Construction  of  Sentences 106 

Unity 107 

Coherence 118 

Emphasis 130 

VI.    Paragraphs 140 

The  Ideals  of  Paragraph  Structure 144 

Adaptations  of  these  Principles  to  Business  Writing     .  158 

VII.     The  Preparation  of  Articles  and  Reports     .     .     .  163 

Gathering  the  Material 165 

Analyzing  the  Material 172 

Making  the  Outline 172 

Writing  the  Article  or  Report       180 

Bibliographies  and  Footnotes 183 

iii 

4iiai3 


iv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

VIII.    A  Business  Man's  Correspondence 190 

Business  Letters 190 

Friendly  Letters 223 

IX.    Talking  in  Public       229 

APPENDIX 

.?             Suggestions  to  Teachers 247 

INDEX 255 


THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

CHAPTER  I. 
THE    IMPORTANCE    OF   ENGLISH   IN   BUSINESS. 

I.    Why  Worry  About  English? 

1.  The  student  who  is  looking  forward  to  a  business 
career  is  inclined  to  dislike  anything  that  takes  his  attention 
from  the  profession  he  has  chosen  to  master.  Accordingly, 
when  some  one  says  to  him,  ''You  should  learn  more  about 
English,  it  will  help  you  in  your  work,"  he  is  Ukely  to  reply 
with  a  question:  "Why  should  I  worry  about  that?  If  I 
know  my  own  business  I'll  get  on  all  right,  won't  I?"  And 
not  infrequently  he  turns  away  from  his  adviser,  confident 
that  the  study  of  English  has  little  or  no  place  in  the  training 
of  a  business  man  or  woman. 

2.  Yet  many  people  know  that  this  skepticism  concerning 
the  importance  of  English  in  business  is  not  shared  by  pro- 
gressive men  of  affairs.  Large  firms  are  every  day  establish- 
ing classes  in  English  for  the  benefit  of  their  employees; 
questions  concerning  correct  usage  come  with  astonishing 
regularity  to  teachers  of  English.  It  is  plain  that  the  gulf 
which  once  was  thought  to  separate  the  business  man  and  the 
teacher  is  rapidly  narrowing.  The  teacher  can  learn  much 
from  his  friend  in  business;  the  business  man  can  learn  some 
things  from  the  schoolmaster. 

3.  When  they  have  gone  so  far  as  to  accept  in  a  vague 
way  this  truth  that  good  English  has  a  place  in  successful 
business,  some  persons,  however,  make  a  mistake.  They 
think  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  ''business  EngUsh," 

1 


2  /•'  ftftie  iSNGtlSHvOF  BUSINESS 

entirely  different  from  the  literary  English  of  the  schools. 
They  realize  that  the  phraseology  of  a  business  letter  differs 
in  many  respects  from  that,  say,  of  Macaulay's  Essays,  and 
are  inclined  to  make  for  themselves  a  new  business  rhetoric, 
and  to  feel,  unconsciously  perhaps,  that  the  less  they  interest 
themselves  in  the  old  principles,  the  easier  it  will  be  to  master 
the  new. 

4.  In  a  limited  way,  of  course,  this  is  true.  The  ordinary 
student  of  English,  unless  he  be  a  sort  of  ''perpetual  Fresh- 
man, "  has  in  mind  the  attainment  of  *'  style  " ;  he  is  interested 
in  the  creation  of  beauty — to  use  words  of  perhaps  too  large 
significance.  The  typical  business  man  has  no  such  ideal. 
His  purpose  is,  let  us  say,  to  sell  automobiles.  If  by  his 
writing  he  can  realize  this  ambition,  he  is  quite  satisfied.  He 
does  not  concern  himself  with  aesthetics.  And  yet  to  think 
that  the  English  he  uses  differs  in  any  fundamental  way 
from  that  of  his  friend  who  writes  short  stories,  is  to  err. 
There  is  no  more  a  "business  English"  than  there  is  an 
''historical  English"  or  a  "geological  English";  it  is  all  one 
speech,  one  written  language.  What  differences  there  are 
between  the  pages  composed  by  story-teller,  historian, 
geologist,  and  automobile  salesman,  arise  only  from  the 
necessity  of  adapting  one  written  language  to  the  solution 
of  different  problems. 

5.  To  return,  however,  to  the  main  question:  why  is  it 
that  thoughtful  people  today  realize  that  good  English,  in  the 
large — and  true — sense  of  the  phrase,  has  an  important  rela- 
tion to  business?  Why  are  firms  and  individuals  each  year 
paying  more  attention  to  the  letters  and  other  written  matter 
they  send  out?  Why  should  the  young  business  man  under- 
take to  master  the  writing  and  speaking  of  English? 

6.  First  of  all,  because  the  habitual  use  of  good  English, 
whether  in  speaking  or  writing,  helps  one  to  make  a  good 
impression  upon  other  people.    It  is  in  a  real  sense  a  mark 


ENGLISH  IN  BUSINESS  3 

of  distinction.  A  business  house  is  particular  about  the 
appearance  of  its  letter  paper;  it  should  be  equally  concerned 
with  what  is  written  on  that  paper.  The  young  man  who  is 
advised  to  be  careful  about  his  personal  appearance,  in  order 
to  make  a  favorable  impression  upon  his  associates  or  em- 
ployers, should  be  equally  careful  about  his  use  of  the  national 
tongue. 

7.  Today,  as  most  people  know,  the  bulk  of  all  business  is 
transacted  by  letter.  A  firm  is  known  to  its  clients  not  only 
by  the  goods  it  sells,  but  by  the  letters  it  writes.  It  often 
makes  its  first  appeal  to  a  prospective  customer  by  a  letter. 
If  the  letter  is  carefully  typed,  on  good  paper,  and  is  well 
composed,  it  makes  a  favorable  initial  impression.  The 
high  school  graduate  applying  for  a  position  writes  a  letter; 
if  it  is  a  good  letter,  he  may  receive  a  personal  interview. 
The  outcome  of  that  interview  will  depend  to  a  considerable 
extent  upon  the  candidate's  ability  to  express  himself  well  in 
conversation.  From  this  point  of  view,  then,  a  command  of 
English  is  highly  desirable:  it  enables  one  to  make  a  better 
impression,  in  writing  or  in  speaking,  than  is  possible  when 
one  is  not  master  of  his  tongue  or  pen. 

8.  In  the  second  place,  a  good  command  of  English  will 
enable  a  person  to  convey  ideas  to  other  people  effectively; 
it  will  help  him  to  do  more  business.  The  world  of  trade 
moves  through  the  exchange  of  ideas.  Smith  has  something 
to  sell;  Jones  wants  to  buy.  If  Smith  can  show  Jones  that 
Smith's  goods  will  satisfy  his  demand,  he  will  get  the  business 
he  wishes.  Whether  or  not  he  succeeds  will  depend  to  a 
considerable  extent  on  his  ability  to  express  himself  in 
EngUsh. 

9.  This  practical  value  of  the  command  of  a  language 
has  seldom  been  more  clearly  recognized  than  by  Benjamin 
Franklin  and  Lincoln.  Neither  man  had  the  opportunity 
to  secure  a  formal  education;  each  man  yearned  for  power  to 


4  THE  ENGLISH   OF  BUSINESS 

influence  others;  and  each,  as  a  young  man,  set  dehberately 
about  the  task  of  learning  to  write  well  in  order  to  convey 
his  ideas  to  others  in  the  most  effective  way.  Today  we  still 
read  Franklin's  letters  and  Lincoln's  speeches,  and  wonder 
at  the  lucidity  and  force  with  which  they  expressed  them- 
selves. They  made  the  language  their  tool,  and  used  the 
tool  to  admirable  purpose. 

10.  A  command  of  English,  then,  will  aid  the  business 
man  in  these  two  ways :  it  will  help  him  make  a  good  impres- 
sion on  others,  and  will  render  easier  his  task  of  conveying 
ideas  effectively.  The  very  fact  that  a  command  of  English 
has  this  immediate  value  to  the  business  man,  suggests  that 
it  will  aid  him  in  still  a  third  way:  it  will  give  him  self-confi- 
dence. Watch  a  skillful  artisan  ten  minutes,  and  see  how 
his  mastery  of  his  tools  enables  him  to  go  about  his  work 
easily  and  swiftly.  Put  those  same  tools  into  the  hands  of  a 
man  unacquainted  with  their  use,  and  the  result  will  be  a 
bungling  job — or  a  wreck.  This  lack  of  confidence  which  the 
untrained  man  is  so  conscious  of  is  one  of  the  most  certain 
causes  of  his  failure.  Similarly,  the  business  man  who 
"knows  what  he  means,  but  can't  express  himself,"  makes  a 
poor  showing  beside  his  rival  who,  no  more  skillful  perhaps 
than  the  inarticulate  competitor,  has  yet  the  confidence  which 
comes  from  mastery  of  the  chief  tool  with  which  business  is 
transacted — the  English  language. 

11.  The  chief  tool — but  not,  of  course,-  the  only  tool. 
Mere  mastery  of  language  will  not  ensure  any  person's 
success.  But  of  two  men  equally  endowed  in  other  respects 
the  one  who  has  most  effectively  mastered  the  English 
language  will  attain  the  fullest  measure  of  success. 

II.  How  To  Use  This  Book. 

12.  The  English  of  Business  is  primarily  a  text-book, 
intended  to  be  studied,  with  exercises,  illustrations,  and 


ENGLISH  IN  BUSINESS  5 

suggestions  to  the  teacher.  It  assumes  a  knowledge  of  the 
rudiments  of  grammar,  but  makes  clear  the  meaning  of  the 
few  grammatical  terms  which  seem  unavoidable  in  such  a 
work.  To  get  the  most  from  it  one  should  read  it  carefully, 
working  out  the  exercises  in  each  chapter,  and  revisuig  them 
when  they  have  been  criticized  by  the  instructor. 

13.  The  general  reader,  who  may  not  be  a  student  in  any 
organized  class,  but  who  wishes  to  improve  his  own  com- 
mand of  English,  will  find  here  much  practical  advice  on  the 
most  important  questions  of  both  spoken  and  written  English. 
Omitting  the  exercises,  if  he  pleases,  but  marking  those 
paragraphs  which  seem  to  him  particularly  suggestive,  he  can 
gain  much  from  simply  reading  the  book  through. 

14.  Third,  the  book  illustrates  correct  usage  in  those 
matters  of  form  which  most  often  perplex  a  business  man, 
and  about  which  confusion  is  easy.  Many  people  will  thus 
find  it  a  convenient  reference  book  to  keep  on  the  table  as 
they  write.  Its  use  in  this  way  is  made  simple  by  the  index 
and  a  system  of  cross  references  in  the  text.  For  instance, 
one  of  the  commonest  sources  of  trouble  to  the  letter  writer 
is  the  punctuation  of  quotations.  Where  should  the  semi- 
colon be  in  the  following  sentence,  inside,  or  outside  the 
quotation  mark? 

He  said,  "I'll  show  you";  but  nothing  ever  came  of  his  remark. 

Turn  to  the  index  under  ''quotations,  punctuation  of,"  and 
then  to  paragraph  83,  and  you  will  find  the  question  an- 
swered. Other  questions  of  the  same  sort  can  be  readily 
answered  in  the  same  way. 

EXERCISE  1. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  one  of  your  friends,  urging  him  to  begin  the 
study  of  English,  and  telling  him  how  it  will  help  him.  Do  not 
simply  paraphrase  this  chapter,  but  put  in  as  many  new  reasons  as 
you  can  think  of. 


6  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

2.  Describe  some  person  you  know  whose  ability  to  speak  well 
helps  him  in  his  business. 

3.  Write  a  paragraph  stating  as  well  as  you  can  what  you  hope 
to  gain  for  yourself  from  the  study  of  The  English  of  Business. 

4.  What  bothers  you  most  when  you  write?  Lack  of  ideas? 
Spelling?  Punctuation?  Sentence  structure?  Grammar?  Idi- 
oms? Look  over  the  written  work  that  has  been  criticized  and 
returned  to  you,  and  make  a  list  in  your  note-book  of  the  errors  you 
have  made.  Keep  adding  to  this  Hst  throughout  the  course,  and 
at  the  end  note  what  errors  you  have  succeeded  in  ehminating  and 
what  still  remain. 


CHAPTER  II. 
MATTERS  OF  FORM. 

I.    Spelling. 

15.  No  business  man  will  question  the  importance  of 
correct  spelling.  The  omission  of  the  second  ''o"  from 
too,  the  use  of  there  for  their,  loose  for  lose,  it's  for  its — such 
shps  may  be  merely  the  work  of  a  careless  typist,  and  may 
reflect  in  no  way  on  the  standing  of  a  firm;  but  it  is  the  firm 
that  suffers  in  the  opinion  of  the  reader. 

16.  And  yet,  as  anyone  who  writes  at  all  will  realize, 
infallibiUty  in  spelling  is  rare.  Even  when  a  student  knows 
how  to  spell  a  certain  word  he  often  finds  himself  puzzled 
when  he  "stops  to  think."  And  the  person  who  never  stops 
to  think,  but  merely  trusts  to  his  instinct,  will  probably  err 
more  often  than  his  self-conscious  associate  who  says,  "I 
know  how  to  spell  the  thing,  but  now  that  you  ask  me  I  can't 
be  sure.'' 

17.  For  such  uncertainty  there  is  no  infallible  remedy. 
Some  people  set  much  store  by  rules  as  aids  in  spelling.  No 
doubt  some  of  these  rules  may  occasionally  prove  helpful; 
there  is  a  certain  security  that  comes  from  remembering 
such  simple  associations  as  those  stated  in  the  following 
paragraph  from  E.  C.  Woolley's  Mechanics  of  Writing  (Bos- 
ton, D.  C.  Heath  &  Company,  1909,  p.  34) : 

In  case  of  doubt  whether  to  use  the  digraph  ei  or  the  digraph 
ie  in  words  like  receive  and  believe,  the  question  may  be  determined 
by  reference  to  the  word  Celia.  If  c  precedes  the  digraph,  e  follows 
the  c,  as  in  Celia.  Thus:  receive,  receipt,  conceive,  conceit,  perceive, 
deceive.  If  I  precedes  the  digraph,  i  follows  the  I,  as  in  Celia.  Thus : 
believe,  belief,  relieve,  relief. 

7 


8  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

But  the  trouble  with  such  procedure  is  that  the  rules  given  in 
many  handbooks — Woolley  (paragraphs  52-100)  has  an 
especially  full  list — are  too  elaborate  to  be  of  much  practical 
service. 

18.  Again,  Usts  of  commonly  misspelled  words  appear  in 
many  texts  (there  is  a  list  covering  twenty-seven  pages  in 
Woolley,  paragraph  101).  But  to  most  people  it  will  seem  a 
waste  of  energy  to  spend  time  learning  what  words  other 
persons  misspell.  A  list  of  words  may  very  well  be  valuable; 
but  each  student  should  make  his  own,  including  the  words 
that  particularly  bother  him,  and  keeping  it  where  he  can  see 
it  as  he  writes.  It  will  save  much  consulting  of  the  dic- 
tionary. 

19.  But  the  surest  way  for  the  student  to  attain  a  reason- 
able mastery  of  the  lawless  intricacies  of  English  spelling  is 
first  to  train  himself  to  recognize  his  own  mistakes,  and 
then  to  have  a  dictionary  at  hand  and  to  use  it  freely.  He 
should  turn  to  it  whenever  there  is  the  least  doubt  as  to  the 
spelling  of  a  word,  and  at  the  same  time  should  fix  the  ques- 
tionable word  in  his  memory  by  writing  it  out  three  or  four 
times  and  adding  it  to  his  list. 

20.  For  the  purpose  of  such  reference  the  best  dictionaries 
are  the  small  ones,  like  The  Desk  Standard  Dictionary  (New 
York,  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Company)  or  Webster's  Collegiate 
Dictionary  (Springfield,  Mass.,  G.  &.  C.  Merriam  Company). 

21.  On  the  question  of  simplified  spelling,  there  is  such 
great  diversity  of  opinion  that  we  hesitate  to  recommend 
the  new  forms  lest  we  thereby  contribute  to  a  still  greater 
confusion  than  exists  even  today.  Nevertheless,  some  sort 
of  simplification  seems  bound  to  come  eventually,  and  to 
come  probably  along  the  lines  suggested  by  the  American 
Simplified  Spelling  Board.  For  such  persons  as  may  care  to 
use  it  we  append  the  first  list,  of  three  hundred  words,  which 
the  Board  published  in  1906,  and  which  has  since  met  with 


MATTERS  OF  FORM 


9 


acceptance  from  a  good  many  writers  and  publishers.  Con- 
servative writers  are  hardly  ready  as  yet  to  lend  their  ap- 
proval to  the  subsequent  and  more  revolutionary  suggestions 
of  the  Board. 


abridgment 

carest 

defense 

accouter 

catalog 

demagog 

accurst 

catechize 

demeanor 

acknowledgment 

center 

deposit 

addrest 

chapt 

deprest 

adz 

check 

develop 

affixt 

checker  [  =  chequer] 

dieresis 

altho 

chimera 

dike 

anapest 

civilize 

dipt 

anemia 

clamor 

discust 

anesthesia 

clangor 

dispatch 

anesthetic 

clapt 

distil 

antipyrin 

claspt 

distrest 

antitoxin 

clipt 

dolor 

apothem 

clue 

domicil 

apprize 

coeval 

draft 

arbor 

color 

dram 

archeology 

colter 

drest 

ardor 

commixt 

dript 

armor 

comprest 

droopt 

artizan 

comprize 

dropt 

assize 

confest 

dulness 

ax 

controller 

ecumenical 

bans 

coquet 

edile 

bark  [=  barque] 

criticize 

egis 

behavior 

crept 

enamor 

blest 

crost 

encyclopedia 

blusht 

crusht 

endeavor 

brazen 

cue 

envelop 

brazier 

curst 

Eolian 

bun 

cutlas 

eon 

bur 

cyclopedia 

epaulet 

caliber 

dactyl 

eponym 

caliper 

dasht 

era 

candor 

decalog 

esophagus 

10 


THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 


esthetic 

idolize 

omelet 

esthetics 

imprest 

opprest 

estivate 

instil 

orthopedic 

ether 

jail  [=  gaol] 

paleography 

etiology 

judgment 

paleolithic 

exorcize 

kist 

paleontology 

exprest 

labor 

paleozoic 

fagot 

lacrimal 

paraffin 

fantasm 

lapt 

parlor 

fantasy 

lasht 

partizan 

fantom 

leapt 

past  [=  passed] 

favor 

legalize 

patronize 

favorite 

license 

pedagog 

fervor 

Hcorice 

pedobaptist 

fiber 

liter 

phenix 

fixt 

lodgment 

phenomenon 

flavor 

lookt 

pigmy 

fulfil 

lopt 

pl«w 

fuhiess 

luster 

polyp 

gage 

mama 

possest 

gazel 

maneuver 

practise  [v.  and  n.] 

gelatin 

materiahze 

prefixt 

gild  [noun] 

meager 

prenomen 

gipsy 

medieval 

prest 

gloze 

meter 

pretense 

glycerin 

mist  [=  missed] 

preterit 

good-by 

miter 

pretermit 

gram 

mixt 

primeval 

gript 

mold 

profest 

harbor 

molder 

program 

harken 

molding 

prolog 

heapt 

moldy 

propt 

hematin 

molt 

pur 

hiccup 

muUen 

quartet 

hock  [=  hough] 

naturalize 

questor 

homeopathy 

neighbor 

quintet 

homonym 

nipt 

rancor 

honor 

niter 

rapt 

humor 

ocher 

raze 

husht 

odor 

recognize 

hypotenuse 

offense 

reconnoiter 

MATTERS  OF  FORM 


11 


rigor 

stedfast 

thruout 

rime 

stept 

tipt 

ript 

stopt 

topt 

rumor 

strest 

tost 

saber 

stript 

transgrest 

saltpeter 

subpena 

trapt 

savior 

succor 

tript 

savor 

suffixt 

tumor 

scepter 

sulfate 

valor 

septet 

sulfur 

vapor 

sepulcher 

sumac 

vext 

sextet 

supprest 

vigor 

silvan 

surprize 

vizor 

simitar 

synonym 

wagon 

sipt 

tabor 

washt 

sithe  [=  scythe] 

tapt 

whipt 

skilful 

teazel 

whisky 

skipt 

tenor 

wilful 

slipt 

theater 

winkt 

smolder 

the 

wisht 

snapt 

thoro 

wo 

somber 

thorofare 

woful 

specter 

thoroly 

woolen 

splendor 

thru 
EXERCISE  1. 

wrapt 

List  in  your  notebook  all  the  words  you  have  misspelled  so  far  in 
this  course,  using  the  correct  form.  Look  the  list  over  before  writ- 
ing each  subsequent  theme,  and  add  to  the  Ust  whenever  you  mis- 
spell a  word  or  feel  doubtful  about  it. 


n.    Abbreviations. 

22.  The  general  rule  concerning  abbreviations  is  that 
with  certain  exceptions  they  should  be  used  sparingly  in 
compositions  written  in  connected  sentences.  Those  that 
are  always  admissible  are  such  common  ones  as  Mr,,  Mrs., 
Dr.,  A.D.,B.C. 


12 


THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 


23.  Abbreviations  indicating  military  rank,  such  as 
Lieut,  Capt.,  Col.,  Gen.,  or  the  civilian  title  of  Professor 
(Prof.)  are  commonly  used,  but  not  by  the  most  careful 
writers. 

24.  In  compositions  not  in  connected  sentences — tables, 
bills,  lists  of  goods,  memoranda,  bibliographies,  footnotes, 
etc. — abbreviations  are  in  place  provided  they  are  clear  to 
both  the  reader  and  writer. 

25.  Whenever  they  are  used,  abbreviations  should  be 
properly  punctuated:  a  period  should  follow  the  contracted 
form  {Dr.,  A.D.,  viz.).  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  few: 
MS  and  MSS  usually  take  no  period. 

26.  The  following  table  shows  the  abbreviations  in 
common  use  today: 


1.      ACADEMIC  AND  OTHER  TITLES. 


A.B.    Bachelor  of  Arts  M.D. 

A.M.    Master  of  Arts  M.C. 

B.D.    Bachelor  of  Divinity  M.P. 

C.P.A.Certified  Public  Accountant  Mr. 
D.D.    Doctor  of  Divinity  Mrs. 

D.D.S. Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery     Messrs. 
Dr.      Doctor  Mmes. 

Hon.    Honorable  N.P. 

J.D.     Doctor  of  Law  (/msDodor)Ph.D. 
LL.B.  Bachelor  of  Laws  Prof. 

LL.D.  Doctor  of  Laws  {Legum     Rev. 
Doctor) 


Doctor  of  Medicine 

Member  of  Congress 

Member  of  Parliament 

Mister 

Originally  Mistress 

(French  Messieurs) 

(French.  Mesdames) 

Notary  Public 

Doctor  of  Philosophy 

Professor 

Reverend 


2.  MILITARY  TITLES. 

Pvt.  Private  Lt.  Col. 

Corp.  Corporal  Col. 

Serg.  Sergeant  Brig.  Gen. 

Lieut.  Lieutenant  Maj.  Gen. 

Capt.  Captain  Gen. 

Maj.  Major  (usually  not  abbreviated) 


Lieutenant  Colonel 
Colonel 

Brigadier  General 
Major  General 
General 


MATTERS  OF  FORM 


13 


MONEYS,   WEIGHTS,   AND  MEASURES. 


ac.       acre 

in. 

inch 

bar.     barrel 

kilo 

>.    kilometer 

bu.      bushel 

£ 

pound  sterling 

c.  (or  cub.)  ft.    cubic  feet 

lb. 

pound  weight 

cwt.     hundredweight 

m. 

(or  mi.)  mile,  minute 

d.         penny  (Enghsh) 

mo. 

month 

dwt.    pennyweight 

oz. 

ounce 

f.         franc 

pt. 

pint 

ft.        foot 

qt. 

quart 

gal.      gallon 

s.  (or  /)  shilUng;  e.g.,  6s. 

8d.  or  6/8 

h.  (or  hr.)  hour 

sq. : 

ft.  square  foot 

hhd.    hogshead 

yd. 

yard 

4. 

NAMES 

OP  ' 

THE   STATES.^ 

Alabama 

Ala. 

Nebraska 

Nebr. 

Arizona 

Ariz. 

Nevada 

Nev. 

Arkansas 

Ark. 

New  Hampshire 

N.  H. 

California 

Cal. 

New  Jersey 

N.J. 

Colorado 

Col. 

New  Mexico 

N.  Mex. 

Connecticut 

Conn. 

New  York 

N.Y. 

Delaware 

Del. 

North  CaroUna 

N.C. 

District  of  Cohimbia 

D.  C. 

North  Dakota 

N.  Dak. 

Florida 

Fla. 

Oklahoma 

Okla. 

Georgia 

Ga. 

Pennsylvania 

Penn. 

Illinois 

lU. 

Philippine  Islands 

P.  L 

Indiana 

Ind. 

Porto  Rico 

P.R. 

Kansas 

Kan. 

Rhode  Island 

R.L 

Kentucky 

Ky. 

South  Carolina 

S.C. 

Louisiana 

La. 

South  Dakota 

S.  Dak. 

Maryland 

Md. 

Tennessee 

Tenn. 

Massachusetts 

Mass. 

Texas 

Tex. 

Michigan 

Mich. 

Vermont 

Vt. 

Minnesota 

Minn. 

Virginia 

Va. 

Mississippi 

Miss. 

Washington 

Wash. 

Missouri 

Mo. 

West  Virginia 

W.Va. 

Montana 

Mont. 

Wisconsin 

Wis. 

Wyoming 

Wyo. 

*  Best  usage  is  against  abbreviating  any  of  the  following:    Alaska, 
Guam,  Hawaii,  Idaho,  Iowa,  Maine,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Samoa,  Utah. 


14  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

5.      MISCELLANEOUS  ABBREVIATIONS. 

acc.  (or  a/c)  account. 

A.D.  (Lat.  anno  Domini)  In  the  year  of  our  Lord.    Used  only  with 

the  year,  not  the  century. 
A.M.  (Lat.  ante  meridiem)  forenoon, 
anon,  anonymous. 
B.C.  Before  Christ.     Used  with  year  or  century  named  immediately 

before :    44  B.C. ;  fifth  century  B.C. 
c.  (or  ca.)   (Lat.  circa)  about.    Used  with  dates:    Chaucer  was 

born  ca.  1340. 
of.  (or  cp.)  compare.  Used  in  references:  cf.  System,  July,  1919,  p.  49. 
ch.  (or  chap.)  chapter. 
c.  o.  d.  cash  on  deUvery. 
cr.  creditor, 
do.  ditto;  the  same, 
dr.  debtor. 

e.  g.  (Lat.  exempli  gratia)  for  example. 

etc.  (Lat.  et  cetera)  and  so  forth.    Never  say  "and  etc." 
ex.  example. 

ff.  and  the  following.  Used  after  page  numbers  in  footnotes  and 
other  references:  pp.  72  ff. 

f.  o.  b.  free  on  board. 

ibid.  (Lat.  ibidem).  In  the  same  place.  Used  in  footnotes  to  save 
repetition  of  an  immediately  preceding  reference.  Ibid,  is 
more  common  than  ib. 

id.  (Lat.  idem)  the  same. 

i.  e.  (Lat.  id  est)  that  is. 

inst.  the  present  month. 

1.  c.  (or  loc.  cit.)  (Lat.  loco  citato).  In  the  place  mentioned.  Used 
in  footnotes. 

MS  manuscript.    Plural  MSS. 

n.  b.  (Lat.  note  bene)  note  well. 

op.  cit.  (Lat.  opere  citato)  in  the  work  cited.    Used  in  footnotes. 

p.  page;  pp.  pages. 

P.M.  (Lat.  post  meridiem)  afternoon. 

p.  o.  post  office. 

P.  S.  postscript. 

pro  tem.  (Lat.  pro  tempore)  for  the  time  being. 

q.  (or  qy.)  query,  question. 

q.  V.  (Lat.  quod  vide)  which  see.    Used  in  references. 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  15 

r.  s.  V.  p.  (Ft.  rSpondez  sHl  vous  plait)  please  reply. 

ult.  (Lat.  ultimo)  last  month. 

V.  (vs.)  (Lat.  versus)  against. 

V.  (vid.)  (Lat.  vide)  see,  consult.    Used  in  references. 

viz.  (Lat.  videlicet)  namely. 

III.  Nvunbers. 

27.  The  only  serious  problem  involved  in  the  writing  of 
numbers  is  this:  when  should  the  number  be  expressed  in 
figures,  and  when  written  out  in  words?  Usage  in  these 
matters  is  now  fairly  standardized,  and  conforms  to  the 
following  principles. 

28.  Any  numerical  expression  that  stands  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  sentence  is  always  expressed  in  words,  not  figures. 

One  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-two  different  persons 
took  part  in  the  campaign. 

29. '  With  this  single  exception,  the  following  sorts  of  numeri- 
cal expressions  appear  normally  in  figures: 

(1)  A  number  greater  than  one  hundred  that  cannot  be 
expressed  in  one  or  two  figures. 

There  were  1872  persons  engaged  in  this  campaign. 

(2)  Sums  involving  both  dollars  and  cents. 
We  offer  this  at  $5.42. 

(3)  Pages  or  other  divisions  of  a  book. 

Consult  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica,  vol.  IX,  p.  428. 
Section  9,  paragraph  22,  of  the  last  Annual  Report. 

(4)  The  number  of  the  year  and  the  day  of  the  month,  in 
dates.  Some  firms  today  affect  the  practice  of  writing  these 
out  in  full,  especially  in  the  heading  of  letters.  There  is 
no  reason,  however,  for  wasting  the  time  of  a  typist  in  writ- 
ing ''January  twenty-two,  nineteen  twenty"  when  ''January 
22,  1920"  is  quite  adequate. 


16  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

(5)  House,  room,  and  telephone  numbers. 

278  Fifth  Avenue. 

Room  317,  Monadnock  Building. 

Midway,  4727. 

30.  The  following  sorts  of  numerical  expressions  are 
normally  spelled  out  in  full: 

(1)  The  hour  of  the  day. 

At  twenty  minutes  past  four  yesterday  afternoon  I  telephoned 
to  you  asking  for  an  immediate  interview.  Or:  At  four-twenty 
yesterday,  etc. 

(2)  The  years,  or  years  and  months,  of  a  person's  age. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  fifty  years  and  ten  months. 

(3)  Sums  less  than  one  hundred,  which  do  not  involve  both 
dollars  and  cents. 

Our  company  has  established  agencies  in  ninety-five  cities  and 
villages  throughout  the  Middle  West. 
We  will  pay  you  sixty-five  dollars  a  week. 

(4)  Round  sums. 

Ten  thousand  bulletins  will  be  ready  tomorrow. 
About  five  hundred  answers  have  already  come  in. 

(5)  Isolated  sums  of  money  in  cents. 
Add  twelve  cents  to  the  list  price  for  postage. 

EXERCISE  2. 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  making  whatever  changes  are 
desirable: 

1.  The  $.03  postage  stamp  reappeared  during  the  war. 

2.  The  war  strength  of  an  infantry  regiment  was  approximately 
3000  men. 

3.  There  were  over  seventy-five  replies. 

4.  My  salary  is  $35.00  a  week. 

5.  He  will  be  49  his  next  bu-thday. 

6.  My  telephone  is  Hyde  Park  nine  four  nine. 

7.  The  article  I  want  you  to  read  is  in  volume  three  of  the 
International  Encyclopaedia,  page  ninety-four. 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  17 

8.  The  registration  this  year  is  three  hundred  and  twenty-seven; 
last  year  it  was  285. 

9.  285  students  were  registered  here  last  year 

10.  My  address  is  614  Clark  Street. 

IV.    Capitalization. 

31.  There  is  little  probability  that  any  student  will  be 
greatly  puzzled  concerning  the  use  of  capital  letters;  for  the 
sake  of  completeness,  however,  we  include  illustrations  of  the 
accepted  usages. 

32.  A  capital  letter  stands  at  the  beginning  of  (1)  every 
sentence,  (2)  every  luie  of  poetry,  and  (3)  every  direct  quota- 
tion that  is  composed  of  one  or  more  complete  sentences. 
Examples  follow: 

(1)  There  is  no  need  to  illustrate  this  usage. 

(2)  I  am  the  owner  of  the  sphere, 

Of  the  seven  stars  and  the  solar  year, 

Of  Csesar's  hand  and  Plato's  brain, 

Of  Lord  Christ's  heart  and  Shakespeare's  strain. 

(3)  The  manager  sent  this  note  to  all  department  chiefs :  "  Com- 
plaints have  come  to  me  that  employees  of  the  company  have 
been  making  promises  in  the  company's  name,  which  it  later  de- 
veloped could  not  be  kept.  This  practice  is,  obviously,  a  most 
harmful  one."  But:  The  manager's  letter  stresses  the  fact  that 
making  promises  in  the  company's  name  which  cannot  be  kept, 
is  a  harniful  practice  (in  this  indirect  quotation  no  capitals  are  used). 

33.  In  all  titles  of  books  or  articles,  every  word  except 
conjunctions,  pronouns,  prepositions,  and  unemphatic  auxili- 
aries, begins  with  a  capital.^ 

Carlyle's  History  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Lincoln's  Letters  and  Addresses. 

John  Doe's  article,  "Filing  Systems  in  Large  Offices,'*  in  the 
last  number  of  System. 

1  This  is  the  normal  usage  in  America.  Bibliographers  and  librarians 
favor  the  French  practise,  which  capitalizes  only  the  first  important 
word  of  a  title:     "Filing  systems  in  large  offices." 


18  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

34.  The  following  classes  of  words  are  capitalized  as  in- 
dicated in  the  illustrations: 

(1)  Persons:    John  B.  Smith. 

(2)  Days,  months:    Monday,  January  22. 

(3)  Business  firms:  Marshall  Field  &  Company;  The  American 
Radiator  Company;  The  Metropolitan  Elevated  Railway  Company. 

(4)  Institutions:     The  State  Home  for  the  Blind. 

(5)  Historical  events:  The  Civil  War  (but  note  that  no  capital 
appears  when  one  writes:  "By  the  end  of  1917  Russia  was  in  a 
state  of  civil  war.");  The  Renaissance;  The  French  Revolution. 

(6)  The  names  of  rivers,  mountains,  streets:  Red  River,  Madi- 
son Street,  Pike's  Peak,  Mount  Washington. 

(7)  Titles  of  persons  when  used  with  the  name:  Cardinal 
Mercier,  General  John  J.  Pershing,  President  C.  T.  Jebb.  But: 
the  cardinal  was  present;  a  general  was  in  chief  command. 

(8)  Names  of  the  Deity:    God,  the  Almighty,  the  Creator. 

35.  It  is  best  to  be  conservative  in  the  use  of  capitals 
as  a  method  of  emphasis.  Excessive  capitalization,  even 
when  it  does  something  to  point  out  important  words  or 
ideas,  is,  like  the  use  of  red  ink,  of  doubtful  value.  It  is 
far  better  to  gain  emphasis  by  the  skilful  arrangement  and 
presentation  of  ideas,  rather  than  by  merely  mechanical 
devices. 

V.    Punctuation. 

36.  There  is  no  need  to  show  how  essential  correct 
punctuation  is  to  clearness  and  true  emphasis  in  writing. 
Everyone  can  recall  instances  in  which  careless  placing  of 
points  has  seriously  interfered  with  his  ease  of  understanding 
or  has  even  conveyed  a  positively  wrong  meaning.  Only  a 
few  days  ago,  for  example,  a  legal  document  came  to  one  of 
the  writers  of  this  book  for  revision.  In  it  appeared  this 
sentence:  ''These  certificates  are  not  valid  unless  signed 
by  the  President  or  a  Vice-President,  and  the  Secretary." 
Later  on  this  sentence  was  repeated,  with  slightly  different 
punctuation,  thus:     ''These  certificates  are  not  valid  unless 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  19 

signed  by  the  President,  or  a  Vice-President  and  the  Secre- 
tary." When  the  inconsistency  was  pointed  out,  the  lawyer 
responsible  for  the  document  exclaimed:  "Why,  that  is 
bad  punctuation,  and  bad  law  too ! "  The  shifting  of  a  single 
comma  had  changed  the  sense  radically. 

37.  Again,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  suggest  that  to  many 
people  punctuation  is  a  somewhat  mysterious  affair.  The 
student  who  confesses  that  he  sprinkles  commas  into  his 
compositions  in  obedience  to  no  rule,  but  simply  to  satisfy 
a  vague  sense  of  the  fitness  of  things,  represents  with  fair 
accuracy  the  attitude  of  many  persons.  And  there  is  at 
least  this  justification  for  his  attitude,  that  punctuation  is 
indeed  a  complicated  matter.  When  one  considers  that  we 
punctuate  for  a  variety  of  motives,  ranging  from  a  perhaps 
unreasoning  respect  for  conventional  usage  to  a  desire  to 
make  clear  the  grammatical  and  logical  structure  of  our 
sentences,  or  to  emphasize  an  important  idea;  that  under- 
lying the  innumerable  rules  set  forth  in  the  manuals  there  is 
discernible  no  one  simple  principle;  and  that  really  successful 
punctuation  involves  art  no  less  than  science,  it  is  little 
wonder  that  many  persons  despair  of  every  mastering  the 
subject. 

38.  The  subject,  however,  is  not  really  mysterious.  The 
average  person,  with  a  little  application,  can  attain  at  least 
a  practical  grasp  of  its  leading  principles.  In  the  following 
paragraphs  we  give  a  simple  account  of  these  principles  in  so 
far  as  they  are  essential  to  effective  writing.  We  omit  con- 
sideration of  some  of  the  less  important  details,  and  we 
confine  ourselves  for  the  most  part  to  those  rules  which  are 
generally  agreed  upon  by  present-day  pubHshers — in  a  word, 
to  the  science  of  punctuation  as  distinguished  from  the  art. 

39.  The  reader  who  wishes  a  more  elaborate  treatment 
of  the  subject  will  find  it  in  such  works  as  the  Manual  of 
Style  issued  by  the  University  of  Chicago  Press,  a  similar 


20  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

volume  prepared  by  the  Riverside  Press  of  Boston,  or, 
perhaps  most  conveniently,  in  Professor  George  Summey's 
excellent  Modern  Punctuation:  Its  Utilities  and  Conventions 
(New  York,  Oxford  University  Press,  1919). 

40.  Punctuation  is  concerned  with  the  manipulation  of 
certain  conventional  signs  or  points.  Those  in  present  use 
are  the  following : 

The  period  (.) 

The  question  mark  (?) 

The  exclamation  point  (!) 

The  dash  (— ) 

The  colon  (:) 

The  semicolon  (;) 

The  comma  (,) 

Parenthesis  marks,  or  curves  (    ) 

Double  dashes  ( ) 

Brackets  [    ] 

The  apostrophe  (') 

The  hyphen  (-) 

Quotation  marks  ("     ")  and  ('     ') 

Italics  (indicated  in  manuscript  by  one  underline) 

41.  By  the  use  of  these  points  or  marks  a  writer  may  do 
four  distinct  things:  (1)  indicate  to  his  reader  the  limits 
and  character  of  each  of  his  sentences  considered  as  a  whole; 
(2)  make  clear  the  internal  structure  of  his  sentences;  (3)  call 
attention  to  the  peculiar  character  or  use  of  certain  individual 
words;  and  (4)  set  off  matter  quoted  from  another  writer.  We 
treat  the  subject,  accordingly,  under  four  headings:  the 
Sentence  as  a  Whole;  the  Internal  Structure  of  the  Sentence; 
Word  Punctuation;  Quotations. 

A.    The  Sentence  as  a  Whole. 

42.  The  mark  of  punctuation  to  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence  depends  upon  the  form  and  meaning  of  the  sentence 
as  a  whole.     There  are  in  practise  four  possibilities:  the 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  21 

sentence  may  be  declarative,  imperative,  interrogative,  or 
exclamatory. 

43.  If  the  sentence  is  either  declarative  or  imperative, 
it  should  end  with  a  period. 

Decl.:    Business  is  certain  to  pick  up  in  the  ne^rt  month  or  so. 
Imper.:    Make  your  checks  payable  to  H.  Brewer  &  Company. 

44.  If  the  sentence  is  interrogative  either  in  form  or 
meaning,  it  should  end  with  a  question  mark. 

Interrogative  in  form  as  well  as  meaning:  When  may  we  expect 
to  receive  your  order? 

Interrogative  in  meaning  only:  Perhaps  you  would  prefer  to  look 
at  another  pattern? 

The  question  mark  is  rarely  used  with  indirect  questions. 
The  period  is  the  proper  point  after  such  a  sentence  as: 
"He  asked  when  he  might  expect  to  receive  their  order.'' 

45.  If  the  sentence  is  exclamatory  either  in  form  or  sub- 
stance, it  should  end  with  an  exclamation  point. 

Exclamatory  in  form  as  well  as  meaning:    What  an  idea! 
Exclamatory  in  meaning  only:    You  do  not  mean  it ! 

B.    The  Internal  Structure  of  the  Sentence. 

46.  To  indicate  the  logical  and  grammatical  relations  of 
the  parts  of  a  sentence,  the  student  has  at  his  command  five 
points — colon,  semicolon,  comma,  dash,  and  marks  of  paren- 
thesis. It  will  help  him  if  he  will  get  in  mind  the  pecuHar 
effect  of  each  of  these  points  considered  by  itself,  and  then 
note  some  of  the  constructions  in  which  they  are  used. 

47.  The  colon  has  at  present  but  one  distinct  use:  it  is 
employed,  as  in  this  sentence,  to  indicate  that  the  matter 
following  is  a  continuation  or  explanation  of  that  which 
precedes. 

48.  The  semicolon  is  distinctly  a  mark  of  coordination;  it 
is  almost  never  used  except  when  (as  in  this  sentence)  the 


22  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

clauses  or  other  elements  separated  by  it  have  equal  rank  in 
the  sentence.  Wheii  thus  used,  it  is  a  mark  of  greater 
separation  and  emphasis  than  the  comma. 

49.  The  comma  is  not  so  specialized  as  are  the  colon  and 
the  semicolon.  It  is  the  most  commonly  used,  as  it  is  the 
lightest  and  least  emphatic,  of  all  the  marks  of  punctuation. 

50.  The  single  dash  is  a  means  of  indicating  an  abrupt 
change  of  either  thought  or  construction  within  the  sentence 
— any  relation,  in  fact,  that  the  writer  desires  to  emphasize 
strongly. 

51.  The  marks  of  parenthesis  (curves)  and  the  double 
dashes  are  used — as  here — only  in  the  punctuation  of  paren- 
thetical matter.  In  ordinary  parentheses  that  are  too  re- 
mote from  the  context  to  be  punctuated  effectively  by  com- 
mas, most  writers  prefer  the  double  dashes  to  the  curves. 
The  curves,  or  marks  of  parenthesis  proper,  are  being  more 
and  more  restricted  to  use  with  single  word  parentheses — 
dates,  numbers,  or  letters  indicating  a  series,  etc. 

52.  These,  then,  are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
the  marks  used  to  indicate  the  internal  structure  of  a  sentence. 
The  next  step  is  to  see  what  kinds  of  structural  relations 
within  a  sentence  need  punctuating. 


1.      SENTENCES  CONTAINING  ANALYSES  OR  QUOTATIONS. 

53.  Consider  first  the  tjrpe  of  sentence  which  consists  of 
an  introductory  statement  followed  by  an  enumeration  of  details ^ 
an  analysis,  a  quotation,  etc.  What  point  should  stand  after 
the  introductory  statement?  The  answer  differs  under 
different  circumstances.     Notice  the  following  cases: 

(1)  When  the  introductory  statement  is  formal,  and  when 
the  enumeration  or  quotation  is  long  (in  the  case  of  a  quota- 
tion, two  or  more  complete  sentences),  the  proper  mark  is 
the  colon. 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  23 

Analysis:  Let  us  divide  the  question  as  a  whole  into  these  two 
parts:  first,  what  should  a  business  man's  vocabulary  consist  of? 
second,  what  does  it  usually  consist  of? 

Quotation:  John  Stuart  Mill  thus  states  the  chief  objection  to 
the  extension  of  government  control  over  business:  "The  third, 
and  most  cogent  reason  for  restricting  the  interference  of  govern- 
ment, is  the  great  evil  of  adding  unnecessarily  to  its  power.  Every 
function  superadded,  etc." 

(2)  When  the  second  part  of  the  sentence  is  short  and 
informally  introduced,  a  dash  may  take  the  place  of  the  colon 
in  the  case  of  an  enumeration  or  explanation,  and  a  comma 
in  the  case  of  a  quotation. 

Enumeration:  The  merits  of  the  plan  are  these — cheapness, 
practicability,  and  general  serviceableness. 

Quotation:  Finally  the  judge  said,  "The  case  is  postponed  until 
next  week." 

(3)  When  the  enumeration  or  explanation  is  introduced 
by  an  expression  such  as  namely,  that  is,  for  example,  etc.,  the 
punctuation  before  this  expression  may  be  either  a  colon,  a 
semicolon,  a  dash,  or  a  comma,  according  to  the  length  and 
formality  of  the  sentence.  The  following  sentences  will 
illustrate  the  various  possibilities: 

The  reasons  which  have  been  urged  against  government  interfer- 
ence in  business  are  many:  for  example,  John  Stuart  Mill  feared  the 
rise  of  a  powerful  bureaucracy.    Or: 

The  reasons  which  have  been  urged  .  .  ,  are  many;  for 
example.     .     . 

His  proposal  can  mean  only  one  thing — ^namely,  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  failure. 

So  far  only  one  large  firm  has  adopted  this  system,  namely,  the 
Jones  Radiator  Company.  (Some  publishing  houses  omit  the 
conrnia  after  namely.) 

EXERCISE  3. 

Insert  the  proper  punctuation  marks  in  the  following  sentences: 
1.    The  problem  is  this  are  there  enough  houses  to  care  for  the 
families  of  the  men  whom  we  propose  to  bring  here 


24  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

2.  My  exact  words  were  these  I  shall  be  glad  to  act  as  coach  of 
the  team  if  you  will  give  me  an  assistant 

3.  The  objections  to  your  proposal  are  three  expense  danger  and 
difficulty  of  operation 

4.  He  said  I'll  be  glad  to  act  as  coach 

5.  This  phenomenon  has  received  a  recognized  name  among 
alienists  namely  aphasia 

6.  Of  laborers  there  are  two  main  divisions  the  manual  and  the 
professional 

7.  They  are  to  be  distinguished  carefully  from  men  who  in  all 
other  respects  look  and  behave  very  much  like  them  the  tool- 
owners  or  Capitalists 

8.  I  bought  an  automobile  for  three  reasons  namely  it  will  help 
me  in  my  business  it  will  be  a  source  of  pleasure  and  it  will  keep  all 
my  family  out  of  doors  a  great  deal 

9.  I  bought  an  automobile  for  three  reasons  namely  business 
health  and  pleasure 

10.  There  are  many  instances  of  a  poor  boy's  working 
his  way  through  college  for  example  William  Jones  and  John 
Smith 

11.  When  you  come  bring  what  we  need  tools  spare  tire  and  the 
jack 

12.  My  father  called  to  me  from  the  garage  bring  the  tools  the 
spare  tire  and  the  jack  ' 

13.  The  capital  and  leading  questions  on  which  you  must  this 
day  decide  are  these  two  first  whether  you  ought  to  concede  and 
secondly  what  your  concession  ought  to  be 

2.      COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 

54.  Consider  now  a  second  type  of  sentence,  that  made 
up  of  two  or  more  main  clauses  which  do  not  stand  in  the  rela- 
tion of  introduction  and  analysis  or  quotation.  The  usage 
differs,  once  more,  as  the  sentences  differ,  and  can  better  be 
exemplified  in  detail  than  stated  in  general. 

(1)  In  general,  separate  by  a  semicolon  all  coordinate 
clauses,  whether  long  or  short,  between  which  there  is  no 
conjunction,  or  only  a  logical  connective  such  as  therefore^ 
moreover^  however^  accordingly,  so,  then,  hence,  etc. 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  25 

No  connective:  In  your  letter  of  November  3  you  asked  for  an 
extension  of  two  months;  this  we  are  unable  to  grant. 

Logical  connective  only:  Strikes  in  our  factory  have  resulted  in  a 
stoppage  of  production;  accordingly  we  are  unable  at  present  to 
fill  your  order. 

(2)  When,  as  very  frequently  happens,  the  clauses  of  a 
compound  sentence  are  connected  by  one  of  the  coordinat- 
ing conjunctions  {and,  hut,  or,  nor)  or  by  for,  the  punctuation 
differs  according  ^o  the  length  and  complexity  of  the  clauses 
and  the  degree  of  separate  emphasis  the  writer  desires  to 
give  to  one  or  both  of  them.  It  is  difficult  to  formulate 
general  rules;  but  the  following  illustrations  will  make  clear 
the  best  usage  today: 

(a)  When  the  clauses  are  long,  and  usually  when  they  them- 
selves require  internal  punctuation,  separate  them  by  a  semicolon. 

We  found,  as  soon  as  we  had  taken  our  inventory,  that  our  con- 
dition was  even  better  than  we  had  expected;  and  this  fact  was  the 
basis  of  our  report. 

(b)  When  you  wish  to  give  distinct  emphasis  to  each  of 
the  two  or  more  clauses  in  the  sentence,  separate  them  by 
semicolons,  even  though  they  are  short. 

We  did  all  that  any  firm  could  do  for  a  workman;  and  in  return 
he  led  the  strike! 

(c)  When  the  clauses  are  only  moderately  long  or  emphatic, 
a  comma  is  generally  sufficient  to  separate  them. 

We  telegraphed  you  on  Friday  asking  your  terms,  and  you  did 
not  reply  till  the  Thursday  following. 

(d)  When  the  clauses  are  very  short  and  closely  connected, 
ordinarily  no  punctuation  is  necessary. 

We  telegraphed  you  on  Friday  and  you  replied  a-t  once. 

55.  To  this  last  rule  there  is  one  common  exception: 
clauses  connected  by  hut,  no  matter  how  short,  are  almost 


26  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

invariably  separated  by  at  least  a  comma.  The  reason  is, 
of  course,  that  hut  implies  a  decided  change  in  the  direction 
of  the  thought,  and  therefore  a  decided  break  between  the 
clauses. 

We  ordered  six,  but  you  sent  only  four. 

EXERCISE  4. 

Supply  the  necessary  punctuation: 

1.  The  boys  father  wanted  him  to  be  an  electrician  he  himself 
was  eager  to  study  law 

2.  The  boy  was  eager  to  study  law  his  father  however  wanted 
him  to  be  an  electrician 

3.  This  is  no  time  for  hesitation  every  citizen  must  vote 

4.  We  expected  to  win  the  game  but  the  other  team  was  too 
strong  for  us 

5.  I  shall  certainly  be  in  New  York  by  October  first  if  you  are 
there  then  lets  run  out  to  Sandy  Hook  together 

6.  We  won  the  first  game  they  won  the  second 

7.  The  boys  on  the  team  were  confident  for  they  had  not  yet 
lost  a  game  but  unfortunately  the  other  team  was  as  confident  and 
more  powerful 

8.  We  ordered  six  grindstones  and  you  sent  only  four 

9.  We  ordered  six  grindstones  but  you  sent  only  four 

10.  We  went  to  town  at  eight  oclock  and  you  did  not  appear 
till  after  twelve 

11.  Our  next  stop  was  the  hardware  store  here  we  obtained 
hinges  staples  padlocks  nails  and  putty 

12.  If  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  too  high  the  plant  is 
immediately  killed  if  it  is  too  low  its  growth  is  retarded 

13.  A  man  employed  for  a  day  at  a  time  is  a  casual  laborer  a 
man  employed  for  a  week  at  a  time  who  can  that  is  be  dismissed 
at  a  weeks  notice  is  a  workman  a  man  however  who  is  employed 
by  the  month  is  in  the  first  grade  of  the  salariat  a  man  employed 
by  the  year  is  in  the  second  grade  of  the  salariat  and  a  man  employed 
on  a  lease  of  years  is  in  the  highest  grade 

14.  I  suppose  I  must  go  if  1  dont  he'll  be  anxious 

15.  A  hot  fire  is  necessary  therefore  a  strong  draft  must  be 
provided 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  27 

16.  The  meerschaum  finally  becomes  saturated  with  nicotine 
then  there  is  less  danger  of  its  breaking 

17.  There  seemed  to  be  no  chance  for  misunderstanding  the 
sentence  so  I  put  no  comma  in 

18.  The  report  will  spread  to  remote  villages  and  people  in  the 
backwoods  will  be  induced  to  seek  the  college 


3.      COdRDINATE    SERIES. 

56.  A  third  sort  of  problem  arises  when  a  sentence  con- 
tains a  coordinate  series,  made  up,  not  of  main  clauses,  hut  of 
single  words,  phrases,  or  dependent  clauses.  Should  they  be 
punctuated  by  commas  or  semicolons?  Is  any  punctuation 
necessary?  The  general  answer  is  much  the  same  as  in  the 
preceding  cases:  the  pointing  depends  on  the  length  of  the 
elements  composing  the  series  and  on  the  degree  of  emphasis 
desirable;  the  longer  or  more  emphatic  the  elements,  the  stronger 
the  punctuation. 

(1)  Consider  first  a  number  of  sentences  in  which  the 
series  are  made  up  of  short  and  unemphatic  elements,  and 
hence  are  properly  punctuated  by  commas: 

(a)  The  company  expects  that  all  employees  will  notify  the 
manager  when  they  are  in  financial  difficulties,  and  will  refrain 
absolutely  from  patronizing  the  "loan  sharks." 

(b)  The  gain  to  our  officers,  employees,  customers,  and  to  the 
general  public  would  be  pronounced. 

(c)  We  hope  to  purchase,  to  install,  and  to  operate  in  accordance 
with  your  suggestions. 

Sentences  (b)  and  (c)  contain  examples  of  what  may  be 
called  the  ''a-b-c  series":  in  (b)  three  nouns — ''officers, 
employees,  and  customers" — and  in  (c)  three  verbs — "to 
purchase,  to  install,  and  to  operate" — are  grouped  together 
with  a  conjunction  between  the  last  two  only.  In  punctuat- 
ing such  series,  some  printers  would  omit  the  comma  before 
the  and.    If,  however,  as  in  our  two  examples,  the  elements 


28  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

of  the  series  are  strictly  coordinate,  logic  and  clearness 
demand  that  the  comma  appear.  The  importance  of  insert- 
ing the  comma  wherever  you  intend  the  elements  to  be 
understood  as  coordinate  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
sentence,  which  means  one  thing  with  the  comma  after 
*' Secretary, ''  and  quite  another  when  the  comma  is  omitted. 
*'The  order  on  this  occasion  will  be:  President,  First  Vice- 
President,  Second  Vice-President,  Auditor,  Actuary,  Secre- 
tary, and  Treasurer." 

(2)  The  stronger  punctuation  necessary  when  the  elements 
of  the  series  are  longer  or  more  emphatic  is  exemplified  in  the 
following: 

We  confidently  expect  that  our  employees  will  take  advantage 
of  this  offer;  that  they  will  appreciate  the  spirit  in  which  it  is  made 
and  the  opportunity  it  opens  to  them;  and  that  before  the  year  is 
over  every  man  on  our  rolls  will  be  a  shareholder. 

EXERCISE  5. 

Supply  the  necessary  punctuation  marks: 

1.  Two  acres  of  land  a  shanty  and  a  horse  will  give  any  European 
peasant  a  fair  start  in  fife 

2.  The  new  coach  did  a  lot  for  us  he  raised  the  tone  of  all  our 
athletics  he  made  every  man  proud  to  be  on  a  team  and  he  made 
our  men  respected  as  gentlemen  wherever  they  played 

3.  We  offered  two  things  to  take  back  the  shipment  entire  or 
to  allow  an  extra  thirty  days  for  payment 

4.  I  want  you  to  study  arithmetic  English  and  Civil  Government 

5.  There  will  be  a  chance  for  every  man  to  take  part  in  some 
form  of  athletics  even  if  he  is  not  a  star  he  can  play  on  one  of  the 
class  teams  or  join  a  dormitory  league  or  at  least  play  indoor  baseball 

6.  The  serf  of  the  early  Middle  Ages  of  the  eleventh  and  early 
tweffth  centuries  of  the  Crusades  and  the  Norman  Conquest  is 
already  nearly  a  peasant 

7.  We  think  that  the  premises  of  both  controversialists  were 
unsound  that  on  these  premises  Addison  reasoned  well  and  Steele 
ill  and  that  consequently  Addison  brought  out  a  false  conclusion 
while  Steele  blundered  upon  the  truth 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  29 

8.  The  structure  of  the  elementary  cell  can  be  studied  under 
powerful  lenses  its  divisions  conjunctions  differentiation  and  multi- 
plication into  the  incredibly  intricate  substance  of  plants  and 
animals  can  be  traced 

9.  The  new  thinkers  descended  from  the  magisterial  chair  and 
patiently  fussed  with  lenses  tubes  pulleys  and  wheels 

10.  There  are  no  such  pipes  to  be  smoked  as  those  that  follow 
a  good  day's  march  the  flavor  of  the  tobacco  is  a  thing  to  be  re- 
membered it  is  so  dry  and  aromatic  so  full  and  so  fine 

4.      DEPENDENT  ELEMENTS  NOT  IN  COOEDINATB   SERIES. 

57.  A  fourth  set  of  problems  arises  when  the  sentence 
contains  dependent  elements — nouUj  adverb,  and  adjective 
clauses,  participial  and  infinitive  phrases,  prepositional  phrases, 
words  in  apposition — not  arranged  in  a  coordinate  series,  and 
hence  not  discussed  in  paragraph  56.  For  such  constructions 
the  appropriate  point  is  usually  the  comma;  but  often  no 
punctuation  is  necessary.  Is  there  any  rule  which  will  help 
one  to  decide  between  these  two  alternatives? 

68.  We  may  say  at  once  that  there  is  no  rule  which  one 
can  apply  mechanically  to  all  cases:  here,  even  more  perhaps 
than  in  the  other  departments  of  punctuation,  intelligence 
and  a  clear  knowledge  of  what  one  wishes  to  say  are  absolute 
essentials.  There  are,  however,  two  simple  principles, 
which  will  serve  as  guides  in  actual  practice.  First,  whenever 
the  student  is  puzzled  whether  or  not  to  punctuate  a  de- 
pendent element,  he  should  ask  himself  this  question:  Is 
this  phrase  or  clause  essential  to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence, 
or  is  it  not?  Is  it,  in  the  terms  of  the  grammarian,  restrictive 
or  nonrestrictive?  In  the  following  sentences,  for  example, 
the  italicized  expressions  are  non-restrictive;  they  could  be 
left  out  without  seriously  affecting  the  main  idea  of  the  sen- 
tence: "General  John  J.  Pershing,  the  Commander  in  Chief 
of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  in  France,  was  born  in 
Missouri";  "Our  new  catalogue,  which  has  just  come  from  the 


30  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

press,  contains  300  pages."  The  italicized  expressions  in  the 
following,  on  the  contrary,  are  essential  to  the  meaning  of  the 
context,  and  hence  are  restrictive:  ''William  the  Second 
became  Emperor  of  Germany  in  1888";  ''The  goods  which 
you  orderea  on  November  3  were  shipped  on  the  6th"  (here 
the  adjective  clause  "which  you  ordered  on  November  3" 
limits  the  meaning  of  "goods"  in  such  a  way  that  to  omit 
it  would  destroy  the  sense  of  the  whole  sentence). 

59.  In  such  cases  the  procedure  is  usually  simple  enough : 
set  off  non-restrictive  elements  by  commxis;  leave  restrictive 
elements  unpunctuated.  We  say  "usually  simple  enough"; 
there  are  some  cases  of  restrictive  modifiers,  particularly  of 
an  adverbial  type,  in  which  one  will  have  to  call  to  his  aid  a 
second  principle,  that  of  position.  7s  the  modifying  expres- 
sion in  its  '^ natural' '  place  in  the  sentence?  The  "natural" 
place  for  adverbial  modifiers  is  in  the  predicate;  that  is, 
immediately  after  the  verb  of  the  main  clause.  When  they 
are  thus  placed,  unless  they  are  markedly  non-restrictive, 
they  are  not  punctuated.  Occasionally,  however,  for  empha- 
sis or  some  other  reason,  they  are  thrown  to  the  beginning 
of  the  sentence.  When  this  is  the  case,  they  should  be  set  off 
by  commas  unless  they  are  extremely  short  or  intimately 
connected  in  thought  with  what  follows. 

60.  The  following  sentences  illustrate  the  application 
of  these  principles: 

(1)    Closeness  of  Relationship. 

(a)  Adjective  clauses: 

Restrictive: 

The  man  who  was  here  gets  $1 .24  an  hour. 
The  system  which  will  do  you  most  good  is,  etc. 

Non-restrictive: 

The  President,  whom  you  saw  here  a  moment  ago,  was  once 
one  of  our  foremen. 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  31 

The  chief  advantage  of  this  plan  is  its  flexibility,  which 
mil  appeal  to  anyone. 

(b)  Participial  phrases: 

Restrictive : 

The  train  running  between  Cleveland  and  Akron  was  more 
than  an  hour  late. 

Non-restrictive : 

The  manager,  hearing  of  the  trouble,  called  the  men  to  the 
office. 

(c)  Adverbial  clauses: 

Restrictive: 
We  hope  you  will  call  whenever  you  are  in  town. 

Non-restrictive : 

We  have  not  yet  received  an  answer,  although  we  have 
written  twice. 

(d)  Infinitive  phrases: 

Restrictive : 
He  went  to  New  York  to  place  his  order. 

Non-restrictive : 
It  seems  to  us,  to  sum  it  all  up,  a  most  unusual  opportunity. 

(2)    Position. 

(a)  ^'NaturaV*  order: 

The  trouble  began  shortly  after  the  chairman  opened  the 

meeting. 
He  went  down  town  to  get  his  laundry. 

(b)  ^' Inverted'^  order: 

Shortly  after  the  chairman  opened  the  meeting,  the  trouble 

began. 
To  get  his  laundry,  he  went  down  town. 


32  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

EXERCISE  6. 

Supply  the  necessary  punctuation: 

1.  The  studies  that  are  the  most  useful  are  not  always  the  ones 
that  appeal  most  to  the  undergraduate 

2.  To  stop  the  Germans  Marshal  Foch  used  the  Americans 

3.  We  want  every  girl  to  take  at  least  one  course  in  Domestic 
Science  even  though  she  already  knows  something  of  the  subject 

4.  The  board  engaged  Mr.  Smith  to  act  as  manager 

5.  We  hope  you  will  bring  your  car  to  us  whenever  it  needs 
repairing 

6.  To  put  it  briefly  the  board  expects  to  support  you  in  what- 
ever you  do 

7.  Marshal  Foch  used  the  Americans  to  stop  the  Germans 

8.  If  you  wish  the  car  properly  overhauled  you  must  leave  it 
for  three  days 

9.  The  player  fielding  the  ball  ought  never  to  have  to  stop  to 
think  before  throwing  it 

10.  The  runner  seeing  what  was  happening  came  all  the  way 
from  first  on  one  play 

11.  The  undergraduate  who  is  not  always  a  sure  judge  of  such 
matters  is  usually  certain  what  studies  will  be  useful 

12.  You  must  leave  your  car  for  three  days  if  you  wish  it 
properly  overhauled 

13.  When  the  team  is  ready  for  the  game  I  want  you  to  send 
me  word  at  once 

14.  Send  me  word  at  once  when  the  team  is  ready  for  the 
game 

15.  To  save  labor  however  is  to  reduce  the  demand  for  labor 
the  more  labor  saved  the  less  is  the  demand  relative  to  the  supply 
and  since  the  price  of  labor  is  determined  by  the  relation  of  its 
supply  to  its  demand  anything  that  reduces  demand  while 
leaving  supply  undiminished  tends  to  reduce  the  price  of  labor 
in  general 

16.  He  committed  a  serious  error  in  correcting  which  he  had 
much  trouble 

17.  The  old  gentleman  across  the  aisle  who  had  been  getting 
more  and  more  excited  now  stood  up 

18.  As  an  example  of  the  extended  use  in  economics  of  the  term 
land  we  may  point  out  that  land  includes  water  and  air 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  33 

19.  It  will  never  rank  high  as  an  intercollegiate  game  for  the 
students  find  greater  enjoyment  in  a  contest  between  teams 

20.  I  advise  you  however  to  investigate  for  yourself 

21.  If  our  laws  are  not  what  they  should  be  it  is  time  they  were 
amended. 

22.  Equality  demands  that  the  occupations  among  which  the 
individual  may  exercise  his  choice  shall  be  the  same  for  everybody 
it  is  of  course  true  that  not  everybody  is  equally  fitted  for  every 
occupation  in  other  words  the  actual  power  of  choice  cannot  in  the 
nature  of  things  be  made  equal  since  a  man  cannot  "choose"  to  do 
something  he  simply  cannot  do  equality  therefore  only  demands 
that  the  restriction  of  choice  shall  be  made  by  the  individual 
himself  but  that  as  regards  his  right  of  choice  if  he  is  able  to 
exercise  it  all  occupations  that  are  open  to  anybody  shall  be 
open  to  everybody 

23.  By  the  Kodak  system  no  dark-room  is  required  for  any 
part  of  the  work  not  even  for  developing  as  anybody  can  without 
previous  experience  develop  films  perfectly  with  a  Kodak  Film 
Tank  and  get  better  negatives  than  are  possible  by  the  old  dark- 
room method 

24.  When  the  instruments  are  laid  away  especially  if  they  are 
not  to  be  used  for  some  time  the  compasses  should  be  left  open  for 
otherwise  they  will  lose  their  spring 

25.  It  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that  economics  as  an  abstrac- 
tion of  certain  human  activities  regards  man  in  a  particular  and 
partial  way  economically  speaking  man  is  an  instrument  for  the 
production  of  commodities 

26.  Between  Capital  which  is  the  sum  of  the  concrete  tools  of 
production  and  Labor  which  is  the  abstraction  of  the  energy  and 
skill  of  laborers  and  workmen  there  can  be  no  relations  whatever 
things  can  be  related  to  things  men  can  be  related  to  men  men  and 
things  can  be  related  but  the  thing  Capital  cannot  be  related  to  the 
notion  Labor 

27.  Ruling  pens  hke  any  other  sharp  instruments  become  dull 
with  use 

28.  Like  any  other  sharp  instruments  ruling  pens  become  dull 
with  use 

29.  Ruling  pens  become  dull  with  use  like  any  other  sharp 
instruments 


34  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

5.      PARENTHETICAL   EXPRESSIONS. 

61.  The  punctuation  of  various  sorts  of  parenthetical 
expressions  is  illustrated  in  the  following  examples : 

(1)  No  punctuation: 

We  can  perhaps  explain  best  by  using  an  illustration. 
{Perhaps  is  so  closely  related  to  the  rest  of  this  sentence 
that  it  requires  no  punctuation.) 

(2)  Punctuated  by  commas,  double  dashes,  or  marks  of 
parenthesis  (curves). 

1.  The  reason,  however,  was  clear. 

2.  Your  actions  throughout — and  this  is  our  chief  reason  far 
proceeding  as  we  are  doing — have  been  dilatory  and  evasive. 
(Commas  would  hardly  be  strong  enough  here.) 

3.  Adam  Smith  in  his  Wealth  of  Nations  (1776)  wro^fce  one 
of  the  first  comprehensive  statements  of  the  principles 
underlying  modern  business. 

(Present  usage  tends  to  limit  curves  within  a  sentence  to 
single-word  parentheses,  dates,  figures,  etc.,  and  to  use 
the  double  dashes  for  longer  expressions.) 

62.  The  terminal  punctuation  of  clauses  or  sentences  en- 
closed within  curves  is  sometimes  puzzling.  Two  cases  may 
be  distinguished:  (a)  When  the  parenthesis  is  contained 
within  a  sentence,  no  mark  of  punctuation  whatever  is  placed 
immediately  before  the  second  curve;  whether  any  punctua- 
tion appears  immediately  after  the  second  curve  depends  upon 
whether  or  not  the  parenthesis  stands  at  the  end  of  a  clause 
or  sentence  or  other  group  that  would  normally  be  punctu- 
ated. If  it  does  so  stand,  the  mark  which  would  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  clause  were  the  parenthesis  not  there  is 
placed  after  the  parenthesis.  No  punctuation  ever  appears 
immediately  before  the  first  curve  of  a  parenthesis. 

We  four  (the  President,  Vice-President,  Business  Manager,  and 
Cashier)  are  unanimous  in  this  recommendation. 

This  recommendation  is  concurred  in  by  all  four  of  us  (the  Presi- 
dent, Vice-President,  Business  Manager,  and  Cashier). 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  35 

(b)  When  the  parenthesis  is  a  complete  sentence  by  itself, 
whatever  terminal  punctuation  is  demanded  by  the  nature 
of  the  sentence  is  placed  within  the  curves. 

We  offer  you  two  per  cent  for  cash.  (This  is  our  regular  practice.) 
But  if  you  desire  credit,  please  fill  out  the  enclosed  blank. 

EXERCISE  7. 

Supply  the  necessary  punctuation  marks: 

1.  They  offer  us  a  discount  of  two  percent  2%  for  cash  with 
the  order  this  is  their  regular  practise  we  however  find  it  more 
advantageous  to  pay  in  fuU  at  sixty  days 

2.  Our  entire  exhibition  plows  harrows  and  all  ordinary  farm 
machinery  is  ready  for  the  Fair 

3.  Our  entire  exhibition  is  ready  for  the  Fair  we  are  displaying 
plows  harrows  and  all  ordinary  farm  machinery 

4.  The  Shakespeare  First  FoUo  1623  is  the  first  collected  edition 
of  his  works 

5.  You  can  almost  certainly  be  of  great  assistance  to  us 

6.  He  will  not  however  be  able  to  do  much  work  this  month 

7.  His  accident  it  happened  three  weeks  ago  will  keep  him  in 
the  hospital  for  a  month  longer 

8.  Please  let  us  have  your  check  for  $32.56  the  amount  of  your 
note  plus  interest  as  soon  as  convenient 

9.  Please  let  us  have  your  check  for  $32.56  as  soon  as  convenient 
this  is  the  amount  of  your  note  plus  interest  ■- 

10.  Mr.  Smith  has  taken  the  place  of  Mr.  Edson  in  our  sales 
force  and  will  call  on  you  before  long  probably  by  the  last  of  this 
month  with  our  new  line  of  Spring  shoes 

11.  The  aim  of  economics  is  therefore  to  economize  human 
energy  by  a  substituting  for  it  wherever  possible  animal  mechanical 
or  natural  energy  h  utihzing  it  only  where  its  yield  is  greater  than 
its  cost 

12.  The  historic  example  is  that  of  the  Great  Charter  of  John 
which  conferred  on  the  people  of  England  excluding  however  the 
class  of  the  serfs  numbering  four-fifths  of  the  whole  population 
certain  privileges  thereafter  called  rights  other  examples  are  pro- 
vided by  the  professions  medical  legal  clerical  accountance  etc  each 
of  which  possesses  privileges  conferred  by  charter 


36  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

6.   GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  CONCERNING  THE  USE  OF  THE  COMMA, 

63.  Two  general  suggestions  regarding  the  use  of  the 
comma  may  be  made  here.  (1)  A  comma,  though  not 
demanded  by  any  of  the  above  rules,  is  often  needed  for  the 
sake  of  clearness,  as  when  two  words  or  phrases  might  with- 
out it  be  wrongfully  taken  together,  or  one  part  of  speech 
confused  with  another.  For  example,  the  comma  after  this 
in  the  following  sentence  is  necessary  to  prevent  one  from 
construing  this  as  an  adjective  modifying  agreement:  "Be- 
cause of  this,  agreement  is  still  out  of  the  question."  A 
further  example  of  the  same  thing  is  the  comma  after  "dic- 
tate" in  the  following;  if  it  had  been  left  out,  the  reader 
might  well  have  interpreted  "your  ideas"  as  the  object  of 
"dictate"  instead  of  the  subject  of  "will  arrange":  "You 
will  find  that  as  you  dictate,  your  ideas  will  arrange  them- 
selves in  proper  sequence."  In  all  such  cases  confusion  or 
misinterpretation  may  he  prevented  by  separating  by  commas  all 
expressions  that  might  erroneously  he  read  together.  (2)  One 
should  be  careful,  however,  not  to  over-punctuate.  A  sen- 
tence broken  up  by  commas  that  are  not  necessary  is  bound 
to  seem  clumsy  and  heavy.  The  chief  end  of  punctuation  is 
not  to  mark  every  slight  turn  or  break  in  the  thought,  but 
to  make  the  essential  meaning  of  the  sentence  instantly  clear. 

EXERCISE  8. 

1.  Insert  the  proper  punctuation  marks  and  capital  letters  in 
the  following  excerpt: 

there  are  days  when  the  trout  will  rise  everywhere  and  take 
badly  but  a  very  short  time  will  show  whether  this  is  such  a  day 
or  not  if  the  rise  is  really  a  good  one  and  choice  of  water  can  be 
made  without  interfering  with  the  sport  of  any  one  else  the  angler 
should  so  have  arranged  matters  that  he  is  now  as  the  rise  is  begin- 
ning not  far  from  a  really  good  pool  which  has  not  yet  been  fished 
at  such  times  i  prefer  a  good  stream  at  the  head  of  a  long  deep  pool 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  37 

to  any  other  place  a  heavy  basket  may  be  made  especially  if  there 
is  some  ripple  on  broad  shallow  reaches  of  a  good  river  where  trout 
are  plentiful  but  there  is  more  chance  of  an  unusually  large  trout 
where  there  is  deep  water  not  far  away  and  there  is  a  separate 
character  of  its  own  about  a  pool  which  is  attractive  and  gives  a 
sort  of  personality  to  it  one  such  comes  often  to  my  memory  it  is  a 
pool  in  a  north  country  river  just  large  enough  to  hold  salmon  yet 
not  so  broad  that  the  best  of  it  cannot  be  fished  easily  with  a  single- 
handed  rod  by  wading  one  bank  is  the  edge  of  a  grass  field  the  other 
is  fringed  with  bushes  and  the  stream  slopes  from  the  field  towards 
the  bushes  the  rough  broken  water  at  the  top  is  fairly  shallow  and 
full  of  good  trout  when  they  are  feeding 

2.  In  the  following  passage  remove  all  of  the  punctuation  which 
seems  to  you  unnecessary  and  revise  that  which  you  think  is  in- 
correct.   Give  the  reasons  for  the  changes  you  make. 

The  political  power  of  the  individual,  is  his  power  of  self -direction: 
but  since  it  is  obvious,  that  the  power  of  self -direction,  presupposes 
the  power  to  keep  oneself  alive;  the  condition  of  political  power,  is 
economic  power.  Assuming — ^however — ^the  possession  of  economic 
power  [the  power  of  keeping  oneself  alive] ;  the  power  of  self -direc- 
tion (or  political  power),  that  depends  upon  it,  cannot  always  be 
best  employed,  by  the  individual  himself!  He  may  find  it  advan- 
tageous, at  times,  to  surrender,  temporarily,  his  power  of  directing 
himself;  and  to  confide  his  direction  to  somebody  else,  or  to  a 
group.  This  act,  of  transferring  a  portion  of  one's  own  right  and 
power  of  self-direction,  is  accomplished,  in  a  modern,  democratic 
state,  by  the  process  called,  voting;  which,  in  essence,  consists  in 
concentrating  upon  the  Executive,  (empowering;  as  it  is  called) 
the  powers  hitherto  dispersed,  among  the  individuals  voting.  By 
electing  (in  fact)  we  empower;  for  we  surrender,  in  voting,  a  portion 
of  the  power,  we  possess,  of  directing  ourselves;  and  transfer  it 
to  an  executive  representative.  Or,  we  may  look  upon  the  matter, 
under  a  different  image. 

C.    Word  Punctuation. 

64.  The  third  of  the  general  problems  of  punctuation  has 
to  do  with  the  punctuating  of  single  words  for  the  sake  of 
indicating  case,  the  omission  of  letters,  the  division  of  words, 
compounding,   abbreviations,  status  in  the  language,  and 


38  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

the  like.    In  these  matters  the  determining  factor  is  not 
logic  but  convention. 

1.      THE   POSSESSIVE   CASE. 

65.  The  only  case  which  is  indicated  by  a  mark  of  punctu- 
ation is  the  possessive  case  of  nouns. 

66.  The  possessive  case  of  common  nouns  is  formed,  in 
the  singular,  by  adding  's  to  the  simple  form  of  the  word: 
dog,  dog's;  man,  man's.  In  the  plural,  when  the  nominative 
plural  ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe  follows  the  s;  dogs,  dogs'; 
soldiers,  soldiers'.  In  the  case  of  such  irregular  plurals  as 
men,  women,  children,  deer,  etc.,  the  possessive  case  is  formed 
by  adding  's:  men's,  children's. 

67.  The  possessive  case  of  proper  names  is  normally 
formed  by  adding  's:  John,  John's.  Even  if  the  name 
itself  ends  in  s  (e.  g.,  Burns),  the  same  rule  applies  when  the 
name  contains  only  one  syllable:  Burns,  Burns' s;  Jones, 
Jones's.  Names  of  two  or  more  syllables  ending  in  s  usually 
take  only  the  apostrophe:  Phyllis,  Phyllis';  Summers, 
Summers'.^ 

68.  The  personal  pronouns,  I,  he,  she,  it,  have  special 
forms  for  the  possessive  case,  and  do  not  take  the  apostrophe. 
No  one  would  think  of  writing  she's  for  her,  or  he's  for  his. 
But  many  people  write  it's  for  its,  forgetting  that  it's  is  only 
a  contraction  for  it  is,  never  the  possessive  of  it. 

EXERCISE  9. 

Form  the  possessive  case  of  each  of  the  following: 

Child,  children,  men,  Burkett,  Johnson,  books,  house,  houses, 
pipes,  Keats,  narcissus,  Alice,  MacLucas,  Meyers,  Ames,  goose, 
geese. 

1  PubHshing  houses  differ  on  this  matter;  some  would  print  "Lucas's 
book";  others  "Lucas'  book." 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  39 

2.      OMISSION   OF  LETTERS. 

69.  The  omission  of  letters  in  contracted  forms  or  words 

is  indicated  by  an  apostrophe :  it's  ( =  it  is) ;  doesn't  ( =  does 
not);  hasn't  (=  has  not);  don't  (=  do  not);  I'd  (=7  would);  I'll 
(=7  shall  or  will);  o'clock. 

3.      WORD  DIVISION. 

70.  The  division  of  a  word,  part  of  which  is  printed  or 
written  at  the  end  of  one  line  and  part  at  the  beginning  of  the 
next,  is  indicated  by  a  hyphen  placed  at  the  end  of  the  first 
line.  The  invariable  rule  is  that  the  division  must  be  made 
at  the  end  of  a  syllable.  If  one  is  in  doubt  just  where  a  syllable 
ends  (sy-llahlef  or  syl-lahlef  or  syll-ahlef),  he  should  consult  a 
dictionary.  There  is  no  infaUible  rule  on  the  matter.  Never 
divide  words  of  one  syllable,  or  such  words  as  hesideSy  alsOy 
ovevy  and  other  short  words  of  two  syllables. 

4.      COMPOUND  WORDS. 

71.  The  compounding  of  two  or  more  words  into  a  group 
that  has  the  force  of  one  word  is  indicated  by  placing  a 
hyphen  between  the  parts :  fortune-hunters,  green-goods-man, 
matter-of-fact,  short-story,  seventy-five.  On  account  of  the 
general  tendency  of  the  elements  of  compounds  to  coalesce,  as 
time  goes  on,  and  eventually  to  be  felt  merely  as  a  single 
word,  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  omit  the  hyphen  and  write  the  word 
soUd  whenever  real  doubt  exists  as  to  the  need  for  the  punc- 
tuation. But  because  the  evolution  of  words  is  not  uniform, 
no  simple  rule  can  be  laid  down.  As  in  the  case  of  spelling, 
the  best  thing  is  to  consult  a  recent  dictionary,^  or  to  follow 
the  practise  of  good  publishers.     Even  so,  however,  difficul- 

*  For  a  good  brief  statement  of  the  principles  involved  in  the  formation 
of  compounds,  see  The  Desk  Standard  Dictionary,  New  Edition,  1919, 
p.vii. 


40  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

ties  will  still  persist.  To-day  and  today,  to-morrow  and 
tomorrow,  all  appear  in  reputable  American  publications. 
In  all  really  dubious  cases  the  solid  form  is  to  be  preferred. 
The  following  should  never  be  hyphenated:  throughout, 
nevertheless,  together,  inasmuch,  nowadays. 

72.  Over  and  above  these  cases  in  which  the  hyphen 
may  or  may  not  be  used,  there  are  several  in  which  usage 
insists  that  it  must  always  appear. 

(1)  A  hjTphen  should  always  be  used  in  the  series  of  cardinal 
numbers  from  twenty-one  to  ninety-nine,  however  they  are 
used;  and,  with  few  exceptions,  in  all  cardinal  numbers  when 
they  are  used  as  attributive  adjectives  {i.e.,  "a  three-hun- 
dred-pound weight ") . 

Eighty-two;  but  one  hundred  and  one. 

A  ten-thousand-dollar  man;  one-hundred-dollar  shares. 

(2)  A  hyphen  connects  the  parts  of  all  ordinal  numbers 
that  involve  two  or  more  elements. 

The  twenty-second  year  of  his  life;  the  one-hundred-and-thirtieth 
anniversary;  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch. 

(3)  A  hyphen  connects  the  elements  of  fractions  when  they 
are  used  attributively. 

A  three-eighths  inch  drill;  but  three  eighths  of  an  inch. 

5.      ABBREVIATIONS. 

73.  After  abbreviations  a  period  should  be  placed,  though 
when  an  abbreviation  like  percent  (for  per  centum)  has  become 
estabUshed  as  a  word,  no  period  is  necessary.  The  period 
marking  an  abbreviation  does  not  take  the  place  of  other 
punctuation  necessary  to  show  the  structure  of  the  sentence, 
except  that  if  an  abbreviation  closes  a  sentence,  a  second 
period  is  never  added.  In  the  sentence,  *'We  offer  two 
alternatives;  viz.,  thirty  days  at  four  percent,  or  sixty  at 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  41 

two,  '*  it  would  have  been  improper  to  omit  the  comma  after 
viz.  On  the  other  hand,  the  single  period  after  viz.,  in  the 
last  sentence,  does  not  need  to  be  reinforced  by  a  second. 

6.      TITLES. 

74.  Titles  of  books,  names  of  magazines  or  newspapers, 
and  names  of  ships  are  usually  distinguished  by  being  set  in 
italics  (indicated  in  manuscript  by  one  underline) : 

G.  D.  H.  Cole's  Self-government  in  Indiistry;  System,  vol.  IX; 
Paul  Jones's  ship  Bon  Homme  Richard;  the  U.S.S.  Texas;  the  New 
York  Times. 

Titles  of  chapters  in  a  book,  or  of  articles  appearing  in  a 
larger  publication  such  as  a  magazine  or  newspaper,  are 
usually  set  off  by  quotation  marks: 

See  the  chapter  entitled  "The  Business  Man's  Vocabulary"  in 
The  English  of  Business;  John  Doe's  letter,  "The  Workingman, "  in 
yesterday's  New  York  Times. 

Put  briefly,  the  best  usage  today  favors  italics  for  whole 
publications,  and  quotation  marks  for  parts  of  a  whole. 


7.      SLANG,   TECHNICAL  TERMS,   FOREIGN  WORDS,  ETC. 

75.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  indicate  that  certain 
expressions  do  not  belong  to  the  writer's  general  vocabulary, 
but  are,  for  example,  slang,  borrowings  from  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, or  technical  terms.  Such  expressions  should  be 
enclosed  in  quotation  marks,  or,  in  the  case  of  foreign  phrases, 
printed  in  itaUcs. 

He  was  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  "shyster." 

When  you  wrote  that  letter  you  certainly  "  got  our  goat." 

The  French  call  it  sabotage,  and  we  have  adopted  the  word. 


42  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

8.      EMPHASIS. 

76.  Finally,  one  may  give  emphasis  to  a  word  or  phrase 
by  printing  it  in  italics.  This  device,  however  useful  it  is 
on  occasion,  should  be  employed  cautiously;  too  frequent 
use  of  italics,  like  promiscuous  capitalization,  defeats  its 
own  end. 

EXERCISE  10. 

Supply  necessary  punctuation  in  the  following  sentences,  ex- 
plaining the  reasons  for  the  marks  inserted : 

1 .  There  is  no  exact  American  equivalent  for  the  popular  Enghsh 
term  swank. 

2.  The  statement  will  be  found  in  H  L  Gantts  organizing  for 
work  p  26  cf  also  in  the  same  work  the  chapter  entitled  an  exten- 
sion of  the  credit  system  to  make  it  democratic. 

3.  Its  a  fair  question  whether  the  author  of  the  new  scheme  a  well 
known  Enghsh  engineer  will  ever  be  given  an  opportunity  to  demon- 
strate its  real  merits. 

4.  Many  terms  that  are  of  social  significance  escape  precise 
definition  and  the  term  proletariat  is  no  exception. 

5.  The  best  statement  of  this  view  is  to  be  found  in  Lenins  the 
state  and  revolution  written  before  his  rise  to  power.  See  also  the 
Bolshevik  theory  by  R  W  Postgate  and  the  state  its  origin  and 
function  by  W  Paul. 

6.  The  elegy  in  a  country  church  yard  by  Thomas  Gray  1716 
1771  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  English  poems. 

7.  The  French  word  cliche  has  recently  come  into  vogue  among 
English  and  American  writers  to  designate  any  hackneyed  ex- 
pression. 

8. '  Not  all  of  the  persons  who  have  used  the  term  profiteering 
in  the  last  few  years  know  either  the  circumstances  of  its  origin  or 
its  original  meaning. 

9.  Burns  poem  the  cotters  Saturday  night  owes  its  popularity 
to  its  half  sentimental  half  humorous  picture  of  Scottish  peasant 
life. 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  4$ 

D.  Quotations. 

1.      INDIRECT  QUOTATIONS. 

77.  Material  which  in  substance  is  quoted,  but  which 
does  not  appear  in  the  original  phraseology,  is  not  set  off  by 
any  special  mark  of  punctuation.  One  should  of  course  be 
careful  to  acknowledge  the  source  of  such  material,  either 
in  the  text  itself  or  in  a  footnote.  Thus  in  the  sentence, 
Franklin's  adage  about  getting  up  early  in  the  morning  is  still 
popular,  no  special  punctuation  sets  off  the  words  getting  up 
early  in  the  morning,  because  they  are  not  precisely  those 
Franklin  used. 

2.      DIRECT  QUOTATIONS. 

78.  On  the  other  hand,  all  quotations  that  preserve  the 
exact  words  of  the  original  must  be  enclosed  in  quotation 
marks.  Compare  the  following  sentence  with  that  in  the 
preceding  paragraph:  Franklin's  advice  about  *' early  to  bed 
and  early  to  rise"  is  still  popular.  Here  the  words  in  quota- 
tion marks  are  borrowed  unchanged. 

79.  If  the  quotation  contains  more  than  one  paragraph, 
the  quotation  marks  appear  at  the  beginning  of  each  para- 
graph and  at  the  end  of  the  last.  Very  frequently,  however, 
both  in  printed  and  typed  matter,  quotations  extending 
beyond  one  or  two  lines  are  distinguished  by  being  set  in 
smaller  type,  or  by  being  spaced  more  closely.  When  this  is 
done,  many  writers  omit  the  quotation  marks  altogether. 
(See  the  quotation  from  Woolley's  Mechanics  of  Writing  in 
paragraph  17  of  this  chapter.) 

80.  A  quotation  within  a  quotation  is  set  off  by  single 
inverted  commas,  usually  called  "single  quotes";  thus: 

He  answered  at  once:  "Franklin's  old  adage,  'Early  to  bed 
and  early  to  rise, '  appeared  first  in  P^or  Richard's  Almanac." 


44  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

81.  If  a  quotation  is  interrupted  by  such  expressions  as 
*'he  said/'  etc.,  it  is  treated  as  in  the  following  example: 

"We  will  give  you  ten  days,"  said  the  manager,  "and  at  the  end 
of  that  time  we  shall  expect  a  decision." 

82.  Square  brackets  ( [  ] )  are  used  to  set  off  explanatory 
material  introduced  into  a  quotation  by  an  editor  or  some 
one  other  than  the  original  writer. 

83.  The  terminal  punctuation  of  direct  quotations  is  at 
times  puzzling.  Should  the  mark  ending  the  clause  or 
sentence  be  placed  within  or  without  the  final  quotation 
marks?  The  best  usage  today  favors  putting  a  terminal 
comma  or  period  within  the  quotation  marks,  no  matter 
whether  or  not  it  belongs  logically  to  the  quotation;  all  the 
other  points — colon,  semicolon,  exclamation  point,  question 
mark — are  placed  inside  or  outside  the  "quotes''  according 
as  they  belong  to  the  quoted  matter  or  to  the  entire  sentence. 
Consider  these  examples: 

(1)  His  words  were,  "  I  will  not."  (The  period  is  always  within 
the  final  quotes.) 

(2)  He  said,  "I  will  not,"  and  left.  (Here  the  comma  after  not 
is  no  part  of  the  quotation;  yet  because  of  the  general  practise  it 
stands  within  the  quotes.) 

(3)  They  say,  "We  will  give  you  ten  percent  discount"!  (Here 
the  exclamation  point  stands  outside  the  quotes;  it  is  no  part  of 
the  quoted  matter,  but  indicates  the  exclamatory  nature  of  the 
entire  sentence.) 

(4)  They  write  "  No ! "  and  add  nothing  to  that  one  word.  (Here 
the  exclamation  point  is  part  of  the  quotation;  hence  it  stands 
within  the  quotes.) 

(5)  He  says,  in  the  chapter  called  "In  the  Beginning":  "This 
is  where  I  found  my  starting  point."  (The  colon  stands  outside 
the  quotation  marks  because  it  functions  in  the  sentence  as  a  whole, 
and  is  no  part  of  the  title  of  the  chapter.) 


MATTERS  OF  FORM  45 


EXERCISE  11. 


Punctuate  the  following: 

1.  Soon  the  table  was  cleared  and  laid  out  afresh  and  Lucy- 
preceded  the  maid  bearing  eggs  on  the  tray  and  sat  down  unbon- 
neted  and  like  a  thorough  bred  housewife  tc  pour  out  the  tea  for  him 

Now  we'll  commence  said  Adrian  tapping  his  egg  with  meditative 
cheerfulness  but  his  expression  soon  changed  to  one  of  pain  all  the 
more  alarming  for  his  benevolent  efforts  to  conceal  it  could  it  be 
possible  the  egg  was  bad  oh  horror  Lucy  watched  him  and  waited 
in  trepidation 

This  egg  has  boiled  three  minutes  and  three  quarters  he  observed 
ceasing  to  contemplate  it 

Dear  dear  said  Lucy  I  boiled  them  myself  exactly  that  time 
Richard  likes  them  so  and  you  like  them  hard  Mr.  Harley 

On  the  contrary  I  hke  them  soft  two  minutes  and  a  half  or  three 
quarters  at  the  outside  an  egg  should  never  rashly  verge  upon 
hardness  never  three  minutes  is  the  excess  of  temerity 

If  Richard  had  told  me  if  I  had  only  known  the  lovely  little 
hostess  interjected  ruefully  biting  her  lip 

We  mustn't  expect  him  to  pay  much  attention  to  such  matters 
said  Adrian  trying  to  smile 

Hang  it  there  are  more  eggs  in  the  house  cried  Richard  and 
pulled  savagely  at  the  bell 

Lucy  jumped  up  saying  oh  yes  I  will  go  and  boil  some  exactly 
the  time  you  like  pray  let  me  go  Mr.  Harley 

Adrian  restrained  her  departure  with  a  motion  of  his  hand  na 
he  said  I  will  be  ruled  by  Richard's  tastes  and  heaven  grant  me 
his  digestion 

2.  it  must  be  remembered  however  that  the  engineer  has  two 
distinct  functions  one  is  to  design  and  build  his  machinery  the 
second  is  to  operate  it  in  the  past  he  has  given  more  attention  to  the 
former  function  than  to  the  latter  at  first  this  was  but  a  natural 
and  necessary  condition  for  the  various  engineering  structures  were 
comparatively  few  and  were  operated  in  a  measure  simply  and 
independently  now  however  with  the  multipUcity  of  machines  of  all 
kinds  the  operation  of  one  is  many  times  intimately  dependent  upon 
the  operation  of  another  even  in  one  factory  in  addition  to  this  the 
operation  of  one  factory  is  always  dependent  upon  the  successful 
operation  of  a  numbcF  of  others  because  this  interoperation  is 
necessary  to  render  service  or  produce  results  the  complexity  of  the 


46  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

operating  problem  has  greatly  increased  for  the  operation  of  a  large 
number  of  factories  in  harmony  presents  much  the  same  problem 
as  the  harmonious  operation  of  the  machines  in  one  factory  it  is 
only  however  where  the  factories  have  been  combined  under  one 
management  that  any  direct  attempt  at  this  kind  of  control  has 
been  made  to  be  sure  the  relation  between  the  demand  for  and 
supply  of  the  product  supplemented  by  a  desire  to  get  the  greatest 
possible  profit  has  resulted  in  a  sort  of  control  which  has  usually 
been  based  more  on  opinion  than  facts  and  generally  exercised  to 
secure  the  greatest  possible  profits  rather  than  to  render  the  greatest 
service 

3.  all  through  my  boyhood  and  youth  i  was  known  and  pointed 
out  for  the  pattern  of  an  idler  and  yet  i  was  always  busy  on  my  own 
private  end  which  was  to  learn  to  write  i  kept  always  two  books  in 
my  pocket  one  to  read  one  to  write  in  as  i  walked  my  mind  was  busy 
fitting  what  i  saw  with  appropriate  words  when  i  sat  by  the  roadside 
i  would  either  read  or  a  pencil  and  a  penny  version  book  would  be 
in  my  hand  to  note  down  the  features  of  the  scene  or  commemorate 
some  halting  stanzas  thus  i  lived  with  words  and  what  i  thus  wrote 
was  for  no  ulterior  use  it  was  written  consciously  for  practice  it  was 
not  so  much  that  i  wished  to  be  an  author  though  i  wished  that  too 
as  that  i  had  vowed  that  i  would  learn  to  write  that  was  a  profi- 
ciency that  tempted  me  and  i  practised  to  acquire  it  as  men  learn  to 
whittle  in  a  wager  with  myself  description  was  the  principal  field  of 
my  exercise  for  to  any  one  with  senses  there  is  always  something 
worth  describing  and  town  and  country  are  but  one  continuous 
subject  but  i  worked  in  other  ways  also  often  accompanied  my 
walks  with  dramatic  dialogues  in  which  i  played  many  parts  and 
often  exercised  myself  in  writing  down  conversations  from  memory 

4.  no  shaving  edge  whether  it  is  a  barbers  straight  razor  or  a 
safety  blade  can  keep  its  original  keenness  for  more  than  one  or  two 
shaves  without  stropping  stropping  that's  the  real  secret  of  shaving 
comfort  you  can  be  sure  of  a  fine  keen  edge  for  every  shave  if  you 

use  the razor  the  razor  that  sharpens  its  own  blades  built  right 

into  the  frame  of  the ■  razor  is  a  remarkable  self  stropping  device 

simple  and  efficient  which  renews  the  fine  keen  edge  of  the 

blade  day  after  day  you  dont  have  to  take  the  razor  apart  nor 
remove  the  blade  just  slip  the  strop  through  the  razor  head  and 
move  the  razor  back  and  forth  along  the  strop  in  10  seconds  you 
have  a  new  sharp  shaving  edge 


CHAPTER  III. 
GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES. 

84.  This  chapter  is  not  a  treatise  on  grammatical  princi- 
ples in  general,  but  simply  a  practical  discussion  of  those 
difficulties  which  interrupt  most  often  what  should  be  the 
smooth  course  of  business  English.  These  difficulties  arise 
usually  in  connection  with  pronouns,  verbs,  conjunctions, 
and  idioms.  Accordingly  the  chapter  is  divided  into  five 
parts,  the  first  four  corresponding  to  these  grammatical 
elements,  and  the  fifth  being  a  glossary  of  grammatical  terms. 

I.  Pronouns. 

85.  Here  are  two  sentences  that  illustrate  what  are 
perhaps  the  most  common  of  grammatical  stumbling  blocks: 
"When  one  is  ready  to  buy,  they  ought  to  close  the  deal 
quickly.''  ''Who  did  the  President  send  for?"  What  is 
wrong?  They,  in  the  first  sentence,  is  in  the  plural  number, 
when  it  should  be  in  the  singular;  who,  in  the  second,  is  in  the 
nominative  case,  when  it  should  be  in  the  objective.  The 
number  of  a  pronoun,  and  its  case,  are  the  two  things  that 
cause  inexperienced  writers  most  difficulty.  But  the  princi- 
ples governing  number  and  case  are  relatively  simple;  a  little 
study,  in  connection  with  a  faithful  working  out  of  the  exer- 
cises, should  go  far  towards  clearing  up  the  difficulties. 

A.  Number. 

86.  The  number  of  any  pronoun  should  be  the  same  as  the 
number  of  its  antecedent,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  demonstrative 
pronoun  used  as  an  adjective,  the  same  as  the  number  of  the 

47 


48  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

word  it  modifies.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  ''When  one  is  ready 
to  buy,  they  ought  to  close  the  deal  quickly,"  the  pronoun 
^'they'^  should  be  changed  to  "he"  to  agree  in  number  with 
the  singular  antecedent  "one."  Similarly,  the  expression 
^' these  kind  of  furnishings"  is  ungrammatical  because  the 
plural  pronoun  "these"  modifies  a  singular  noun,  "kind." 

EXERCISE  1. 

Supply  the  proper  form  of  the  pronoun  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  When  a  person's  sales  fall  off,  (he,  they)  ought  to  find  out 
the  reason  at  once. 

2.  We  long  ago  gave  up  handling  (these,  this)  kind  of  machines. 

3.  (These,  this)  sort  of  shoes  will  wear  a  long  time. 

4.  If  either  John  or  James  asks  for  this  work,  give  it  to  (them, 
him). 

5.  We  asked  for  the  President  and  the  Manager,  but  (he,  they) 
had  left  the  office. 

6.  If  the  company  agrees  to  do  anything,  (it,  they)  should  five 
up  to  (its,  their)  word  absolutely. 

7.  If  any  of  the  boys  are  at  home,  tell  (him,  them)  to  come  at 
once. 

8.  If  any  one  of  the  officers  misses  the  Directors'  meeting,  (he, 
they)  will  be  reprimanded. 

9.  (This,  these)  are  the  kinds  of  themes  we  usually  write. 

10.  (These,  this)  kind  of  themes  we  are  accustomed  to. 

11.  If  anyone  wants  to  make  the  team,  (he,  they)  must  be  out 
for  practice  every  night. 

12.  No  one  of  the  four  kept  (his,  their)  grades  above  the  passing 
mark. 

13.  Every  one  will  have  a  chance  to  meet  (their,  his)  adviser. 

14.  When  a  team  goes  on  the  field,  (it,  they)  ought  to  expect  to 
win. 

15.  Every  student  ought  to  have  a  right  to  choose  (his,  their) 
own  form  of  athletics. 

B.  Case. 

87.     The  case  of  a  pronoun  is  determined  hy  its  use  in  the 
sentence  or  clause;  case,  unlike  number,  is  entirely  independent 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  53 

23.  No  class  is  doing  as  much  work  as  (we,  us). 

24.  I  would  rather  have  him  do  it  than  (we,  us). 

25.  He  is  getting  on  faster  than  (I,  me). 

26.  There  is  no  one  getting  ahead  faster  than  (I,  me). 

27.  Let  him  have  a  vacation  rather  than  (I,  me). 

28.  I  would  rather  stand  the  loss  than  have  anything  come 
between  you  and  (I,  me). 

II.  Verbs. 

95.  Here  are  five  sentences  that  illustrate  the  principal 
difficulties  in  the  handlmg  of  verbs: 

(1)  Neither  of  the  two  were  ready. 

(2)  Living  in  New  York,  the  increased  cost  of  livmg  astonished 
him. 

(3)  I  will  be  ready  for  you  tomorrow. 

(4)  I  am  in  Chicago  today,  and  I  was  there  a  week. 

(5)  The  orders  laid  on  my  desk. 

In  (1),  the  plural  verb  were  does  not  agree  with  the  subject 
neither,  which  is  singular.  In  (2),  the  participle  living  is 
^'dangling";  that  is,  unattached  grammatically  to  the  logical 
subject.  In  (3),  the  form  will  should  give  place  to  shall 
In  (4),  the  present  tense  am  should  be  followed  by  the 
present  perfect  have  been,  not  by  the  imperfect  was.  In  (5), 
the  writer  has  confused  the  principal  parts  of  the  verbs  lie 
and  lay.  (He  should  have  written,  "The  orders  lay  on  my 
desk.")  Let  us  look  now  in  a  little  more  detail  at  these  five 
matters  of  (A)  the  agreement  of  the  verb  with  its  subject, 
(B)  the  use  of  the  participle  and  the  gerund,  (C)  the  use  of 
the  auxiliaries  "shall,"  "will,"  "should,"  and  "would," 
(D)  the  sequence  of  tenses,  and  (E)  certain  principal  parts. 

A.  Agreement. 

96.  A  verb  should  agree  with  its  subject  in  number  and 
person.  Usually  this  requirement  causes  little  trouble. 
Some  people,  it  is  true,  need  to  be  cautioned  against  such 


54  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

gross  violations  of  agreement  as  "he  don't"  for  "he  doesn't," 
"I  says"  for  "I  say"  or  "I  said,"  etc.  And  it  is  sometimes 
hard  to  remember  that,  as  in  the  following  sentence,  the 
verb  agrees  with  the  subject  and  not  with  the  predicate 
noun:  "Inefficiency  and  weakness  are  (not  is)  the  result 
of  careless  management."  But  ordinarily  difficulties  arise 
only  when  the  number  of  the  subject  is  for  one  reason  or 
another  not  evident  at  a  glance. 

97.  Thus  when  the  subject  is  a  collective  noun  such  as 
"committee,"  "board,"  "posse,"  etc.,  the  number  of  the 
verb  depends  upon  the  sense  in  which  the  writer  understands 
the  subject.  If  he  thinks  of  the  subject  as  a  single  unit,  the 
verb  must  be  singular;  if  he  has  in  mind  the  various  parts  of 
which  the  larger  unit  is  composed,  the  verb  should  be  plural. 
For  example,  both  of  these  sentences  are  correct: 

The  committee  was  unanimous  in  its  recommendation. 
The  committee  were  of  ten  different  minds. 

Some  collective  nouns  are  not  susceptible  of  a  double  inter- 
pretation, as  one  can  see  by  trying  to  use  the  subject  of  the 
following  sentence  with  the  verb  "were":  "The  division 
was  in  action  at  St.  Mihiel." 

98.  Again,  when  a  singular  subject  is  followed  by  a  paren- 
thetical expression  introduced  by  "with,"  "together  with," 
"as  well  as,"  and  the  like,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  verb  to 
be  attracted  into  the  plural.     It  should  always  be  singular. 

The  principal,  as  well  as  the  ten  teachers,  was  at  the  game. 

99.  Again,  one  should  guard  against  the  habit  of  allowing 
a  verb  which  should  be  singular  to  slip  over  into  the  plural 
because  of  a  plural  noun  which  stands  nearer  to  it  than  the 
grammatical  subject.  It  would  be  an  error  to  allow  the 
importance  of  the  word  "automobiles"  in  the  following  sen- 
tence, and  its  nearness  to  the  verb,  to  transform  "has"  into 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  55 

"have":     "The  general  use  of  automobiles  has  resulted  in 
many  changes." 

100.  Sentences  introduced  by  "it,"  "there,"  "here,"  in 
which  the  logical  subject  follows  the  verb,  sometimes  cause 
trouble.  In  such  cases  one  should  remember  (1)  that  after 
an  introductory  "it"  the  verb  is  always  singular  no  matter 
what  may  be  the  number  of  the  logical  subject,  and  (2)  that 
after  an  introductory  "there"  or  "here"  the  verb  is  singular 
or  plural  as  the  noun  that  follows  it  is  singular  or  plural. 

(1)  It  was  the  hope  of  large  profits  that  caused  him  to  undertake 
the  venture. 

It  is  the  results  that  count. 

(2)  There  is  good  reason  for  his  discharge. 

There  are  two  hundred  workmen  now  in  this  factory. 
Here  is  the  pattern  I  have  been  looking  for. 
Here  are  all  the  orders  we  have  been  able  to  secure. 

101.  Sentences  containing  compound  subjects  are  also 
frequent  occasions  of  error.  There  are  several  variants  of 
this  construction.  (1)  The  parts  of  the  compound  subject 
may  be  joined  by  "and,"  "but,"  "both  .  .  .  and."  In 
such  cases  the  verb  is  always  plural.  (2)  Two  or  more  singu- 
lar nouns  or  pronouns  may  be  connected  by  "or"  or  "nor," 
"either  .  .  .  or,"  or  "neither  .  .  .  nor."  The  verb  is 
always  singular.  (3)  Two  or  more  plural  nouns  or  pronouns 
may  be  connected  by  these  same  conjunctions.  The  verb 
is  then  plural.  (4)  One  singular  noun  or  pronoun  and  one 
plural  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  connected  by  "or,"  "nor," 
etc.  Here  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearer  of  the  two  parts  of 
the  subject.  The  sentences  that  follow  exemplify  these  four 
types  of  construction: 

(1)  The  workmen  and  their  employers  have  reached  an  agreement 
concerning  hours  and  wages. 

Both  the  higher  price  of  materials  and  the  greater  cost  of  labor 
have  forced  us  to  raise  our  rates. 


56  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

(2)  Neither  No.  27  nor  No.  27A  is  in  stock. 

(3)  Neither  the  wages  of  the  workmen  nor  the  salaries  of  the 
officials  have  risen  as  rapidly  as  the  cost  of  living. 

(4)  Either  the  Directors  or  the  President  of  the  Company  is 
responsible. 

Either  the  President  of  the  company  or  his  principal  subordi- 
nates are  at  fault. 
Either  you  or  he  is  to  be  promoted. 

In  this  last  sentence  the  agreement  is  in  person  as  well  as 
number.  Sometimes  the  rule  cannot  be  applied  without 
awkwardness,  as  in  the  sentence,  "Either  you  or  I  (are? 
am?)  to  be  promoted.  Such  sentences  had  best  be  avoided 
entirely. 

102.  The  indefinite  pronouns  (or  adjectives)  "each,'^ 
"either,"  "neither,"  "every,"  "everybody,"  are  singular, 
and  take  singular  verbs.  "None"  is  either  singular  or 
plural  according  as  one  means  "not  one"  or  "not  any." 

Each  of  our  chief  competitors  is  beginning  to  feel  the  pressure  of 
our  more  aggressive  methods. 

Everybody  knows  that  the  basis  of  credit  is  potential  ability 
to  pay. 

None  of  the  three  possibilities  has  come  to  pass. 

None  of  our  rivals  have  succeeded  in  underbidding  us  for  the  job. 

EXERCISE  3. 

Insert  the  proper  form  of  the  verb  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  It  (don't,  doesn't)  sound  true  to  me. 

2.  He  (says,  said)  to  me  at  the  beginning,  "Here  is  the  job." 
S.    He  (don't,  doesn't)  please  our  customers. 

4.  The  vote  of  the  Directors  (was,  were)  unanimous. 

5.  The  team  (was,  were)  on  the  field  at  three  o'clock. 

6.  The  wearing  power  of  the  tires  and  their  low  cost  (is,  are) 
what  we  hke  best. 

7.  The  three-ton  truck,  with  the  two  smaller  ones,  (was,  were) 
all  we  had  to  work  with. 

8.  The  manager,  together  with  his  two  assistants,  (was,  were) 
at  the  factory  all  night. 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  57 

9.     The  importance  of  accurate  systems  of  cost  accounting 
(has,  have)  been  made  clear  to  everyone. 

10.  The  developments  in  electric  machinery  (has,  have)  lessened 
our  problem. 

11.  The  increased  production  and  the  lessened  wear  on  our  own 
trucks  (has,  have)  been  noticeable  for  over  a  year. 

12.  The  widespread  adoption  of  these  systems  (has,  have)  been 
very  gratifying. 

13.  It  (was,  were)  fifty  dollars. 

14.  It  (was,  were)  five  hundred  strikers  in  a  soUd  crowd. 

15.  There  (were,  was)  fifty  dollars  in  it. 

16.  There  (was,  were)  five  hundred  strikers  in  the  crowd. 

17.  John  and  James  (have,  has)  gone  home. 

18.  Both  the  President  and  the  Manager  (is,  are)  in  the  office. 

19.  Neither  of  the  two  (is,  are)  at  home. 

20.  Neither  tires  nor  accessories  (is,  are)  guaranteed. 

21.  Either  Mr.  Smith  or  his  agents  (is,  are)  responsible. 

22.  Either  the  agents  or  Mr.  Smith  himself  (is,  are)  re- 
sponsible. 

23.  Each  of  the  four  leaders  (has,  have)  returned. 

24.  None  of  the  four  leaders  (has,  have)  returned. 

25.  None  of  the  workmen  (has,  have)  ever  complained. 

B.  The  Participle  and  the  Gerund. 

103.  The  participle,  especially  the  present  form  in  4ng,  is 
commonly  misused  through  failure  to  remember  that  it  has  a 
double  function  in  a  sentence:  it  is  at  once  a  part  of  a  verb 
and  an  adjective.  As  a  verb  it  implies  a  subject.  As  an 
adjective  it  must  modify  some  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  same 
sentence.  Hence  it  must  modify  the  word  which  would  logically 
he  its  subject  if  it  were  a  verb  with  a  subject.  Thus,  it  is  in- 
correct to  write :  "  Going  to  New  York,  the  increased  cost  of 
living  astonished  him."  Here,  grammatically,  the  participle 
''going"  modifies  the  noun  "cost";  but  it  should  modify  the 
implied  subject,  that  is,  the  person  who  went  to  New  York. 
A  correct  form  would  be:  "Going  to  New  York,  he  was 
astonished  at  the  increased  cost  of  living." 


68  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

104.  The  gerund,  or  verbal  noun,  is  commonly  misused 
in  two  ways.  The  first  is  analogous  to  the  illogical  and 
ungrammatical  use  of  the  participle  just  discussed.  For 
instance,  in  the  sentence,  "By  going  to  New  York,  the  in- 
creased cost  of  living  is  made  apparent,"  the  gerund  "going" 
implies,  logically,  an  agent,  someone  who  went.  But  no 
such  agent  appears  in  the  sentence.  It  is  better  to  write: 
"By  going  to  New  York,  one  can  see  how  enormously  the 
cost  of  living  has  increased." 

105.  The  second  misuse  of  the  gerund  is  due  to  a  failure 
to  realize  that  it  is  a  noun  as  well  as  a  verb.  Many  persons 
write  such  sentences  as  "We  have  no  objection  to  you  placing 
your  order  through  Mr.  Smith,"  or  "We  are  in  favor  of 
your  company  taking  this  up."  The  error  in  these  sentences 
will  be  apparent  if  you  will  remember  that  the  object  of  the 
preposition  to  is  not  you  but  placing;  and  the  object  of  the 
preposition  of  not  your  company  but  taking.  Correctly 
phrased,  the  sentences  would  read:  "We  have  no  objection 
to  your  placing  your  order  through  Mr.  Smith;"  and  "We 
are  in  favor  of  your  company's  taking  this  up."  In  all  such 
cases  the  gerund  should  be  preceded  by  the  possessive  case 
of  the  noun  or  pronoun. 

106.  The  rule  set  forth  in  paragraph  103  does  not  apply 
to  a  number  of  expressions,  originally  participial  phrases, 
which  have  now  acquired  the  force  of  prepositions  or  con- 
junctions. The  italicized  words  in  the  following  sentences 
are,  if  regarded  strictly  as  participles,  grammatically  incor- 
rect; no  one,  however,  would  think  of  objecting  to  their  use: 

Considering  the  circumstances,  your  decision  seems  to  us  alto- 
gether wise. 

Assuming  that  the  Express  Company  does  itis  part  on  schedule 
time,  the  shipment  should  reach  you  by  the  first  of  next  week. 

Owing  to  an  unexpected  scarcity  in  steel  rails,  the  construction 
of  the  siding  has  been  delayed. 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  59 

107.  Analogous  to  the  misuse  of  the  participle  is  the 
ungrammatical  or  illogical  emplojrment  of  a  phrase  intro- 
duced by  due  to.  One  often  reads  sentences  like  the  follow- 
ing, which  is  incorrect  because  the  writer  failed  to  reaUze 
that  ''due"  is  an  adjective  and  consequently  must  modify 
a  noun  or  a  pronoun  expressed  in  the  same  sentence:  ''Due 
to  an  unexpected  scarcity  of  steel  rails,  the  construction  of 
the  siding  has  been  delayed."  As  the  sentence  stands,  the 
phrase  introduced  by  "due"  modifies  the  noun  "construc- 
tion"; the  meaning,  however,  is  that  the  delay  was  due  to 
scarcity  of  the  rails.  The  error  may  be  corrected  in  two 
ways:  either  by  recasting  the  sentence  so  as  to  make  "due" 
modify  the  correct  noun,  as,  "We  regret  that  there  has  been  a 
delay  in  the  construction  of  the  siding,  due  to  a  scarcity  of 
steel  rails"  (here  "due,"  etc.  clearly  modifies  the  noun 
"delay");  or  by  substituting  for  the  adjectival  phrase  "due 
to"  an  adverbial  phrase  introduced  by  "owing  to"  or  "on 
account  of"  (see  the  third  example  under  paragraph  106). 
Perhaps  the  best  practical  rule  is  to  avoid  the  "due  to" 
construction  altogether  except  as  a  predicate  adjective. 

EXERCISE  4. 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences  when  necessary,  and  explain  the 
reasons  for  all  the  changes  you  make: 

1.  Having  no  guarantee,  it  was  necessary  to  pay  the  costs  my- 
self. 

2.  Driving  without  his  license,  the  first  poHceman   he  met 
arrested  him. 

3.  Using  the  two  machines  alternately,  it  is  easy  to  see  which 
is  the  better, 

4.  You  will  not  object  to  us  publishing  the  book. 

5.  You  will  not  object  to  our  company  publishing  the  book. 

6.  Riding  through  the  next  county,  the  roads  were  the  worst 
we  had  ever  seen. 

7.  Due  to  the  office  being  closed,  we  could  not  answer  your 
letter  till  today. 


60  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

8.  We  shall  be  able  to  care  for  this  order  at  once,  due  to  the 
reopening  of  all  our  factories. 

9.  The  increased  production  was  due  to  the  fine  spirit  of  all  the 
workmen. 

10.  Rowing  out  from  the  wharf,  a  large  motor  boat  ran  into  the 
dory. 

11.  We  have  no  objection  to  students  dancing  in  the  gym- 
nasium. 

12.  By  dancing  in  the  gymnasiiun,  the  floor  has  been  injured 
for  basketball. 

13.  By  dancing  in  the  gymnasium,  the  students  injure  the 
floor. 

14.  In  running  from  third  base  to  home,  it  is  against  the  rules 
to  go  more  than  three  feet  from  the  direct  baseline. 

15.  Between  first  and  third  there  is  no  rule  against  a  player  run- 
ning outside  the  baseline. 

16.  Due  to  the  fact  that  he  was  a  left-handed  pitcher,  the  runner 
could  not  get  a  good  start  from  first. 

17.  I  have  no  objection  to  the  boy  playing  football. 

18.  By  using  an  electric  sewing-machine  more  work  is 
finished. 

19.  The  farmer  does  not  object  to  the  factory  worker  having 
dayUght-saving  if  he  Ukes  it. 

C.  '^ Shall"  and  "Will."  ' 

108.  The  confusion  in  the  use  of  shall  and  will  (and  their 
past  forms  should  and  would)  is  due  primarily  to  failure  to 
realize  that  expressions  involving  the  future  may  indicate 
on  the  part  of  the  speaker  either  (1)  a  mere  expectation  that 
something  is  going  to  happen  (simple  futurity),  or  (2)  deter- 
mination, promise,  or  assurance.  When  a  writer  wishes 
to  express  determination,  etc.,  he  should  not  use  the  form 
that  states  merely  that  something  will  happen  in  the  future, 
and  vice  versa.  The  following  table  will  help  to  make  clear 
the  usage  of  ''shall"  and  ''will"  in  direct  statements: 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  61 

FUTURITY.  DETERMINATION.^ 

Singular  Plural  Singular  Plural 

1st  P.  I  shall  WeshaU  I  will  We  wiU 

2nd  P.  You  will  You  will  You  shall       You  shall 

3rd  P.  He  will  They  will  He  shall         They  shall 

In  other  words,  and  to  sum  up  the  prevailing  usage  in  a 
convenient  rule:  To  express  simple  futurity,  use  shall  in 
the  first  person,  and  will  in  the  second  and  third.  To  express- 
determination,  etc.,  use  will  in  the  first  person,  and  shall  in 
the  second  and  third. 

Futurity 

I  shall  be  there  at  ten. 

You  will  find  our  catalogue  enclosed. 

He  will  take  your  order. 

We  shall  be  in  the  market  by  December. 

You  will  receive  our  next  catalogue. 

They  will  adjust  all  complaints. 

Determination 

I  will  attend  to  this  matter  personally. 

You  shall  have  complete  satisfaction. 

He  shall  never  again  have  credit. 

We  will  make  good  in  this,  or  sell  out. 

You  shall  have  no  further  cause  for  complaint. 

They  shall  never  again  interfere  with  you. 

109.  The  use  of  should  and  would  in  simple  statements 
is  similar  to  that  of  shall  and  will.  To  express  futurity,  use 
should  in  the  first  person  and  would  in  the  second  and  third; 

1  Here,  and  in  what  follows,  "determination"  is  used  to  cover  several 
more  or  less  distinct  attitudes  of  mind,  all  of  them  implying  that  the 
speaker  feels  himself  in  at  least  partial  control  of  the  situation.  Some- 
times the  attitude  is  one  of  promise,  sometimes  of  mere  willingness  or 
acquiescence,  or,  in  the  negative,  of  refusal. 


62  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

to  express  determination,  use  would  in  the  first  person  and 
should  in  the  second  and  third. 

Futurity 
I  (we)  should  be  glad  to  be  there. 
You  (he)  would,  of  course,  have  met  us  half  way  in  this  offer. 

Determination 

I  (we)  would  accept  your  offer  if  I  (we)  could  afford  it. 

If  you  (he,  they)  had  not  left  town,  you  (he,  they)  should  have 
spent  Sunday  with  us. 

110.  In  questions  that  call  for  an  answer,  the  best  usage 
demands  that  one  use  in  the  question  the  form  one  expects 
in  the  answer. 

"Shall  you  be  in  town  over  Sunday? "  "Yes,  I  shallJ^  (Futurity) 

"  Will  you  accept  the  position  on  the  terms  outlined  in  my  last 
letter?  "     "  I  wilV     (Promise) 

"Should  you  care  to  look  through  our  stock?"  "Yes,  I  should 
very  much  like  to  do  so."     (Futurity) 

"  Would  your  firm  be  willing  to  accept  this  scheme  of  payment?" 
**So  far  as  I  know  now,  it  would."     (Futurity) 

111.  In  conditional  clauses  introduced  by  if,  etc.,  the  rule 
is  to  use  should  in  all  three  persons  and  in  both  numbers  to 
express  futurity,  and  would  in  all  three  persons  and  in  both 
numbers  to  express  determination  or  willingness. 

If  we  should  do  that,  it  would  cost  us  a  hundred  dollars. 
If  he  should  ask  it,  we  should  have  to  say  "No." 
If  he  would  only  let  us  demonstrate  to  him  the  practicability  of 
our  plan,  we  beUeve  that  we  could  convince  him. 

In  the  first  two  of  the  foregoing  sentences  the  use  of  would 
and  should  in  the  final  clauses  ("it  would  cost";  *'we  should 
have")  is  correct;  in  both  cases  the  writer  expresses  simple 
futurity,  not  determination. 

112.  In  addition  to  the  uses  described  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs,  the  auxiliaries  should  and  would  have  special 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  63 

meanings  quite  independent  of  their  relation  to  the  ideas  of 
futurity  and  determination.  Should  may  be  used  in  all 
three  persons  as  an  equivalent  of  "ought  to,"  as  in  the  sen- 
tences, ''You  should  take  more  pains  with  your  letter-writ- 
ing," and  "We  should  undoubtedly  employ  more  salesmen." 
Would  may  be  used  also  in  all  three  persons  to  express  the 
idea  of  habitual  action,  as  when  one  says,  "He  would  go  home 
from  work,  eat  his  supper,  and  settle  down  for  a  long  evening 
of  study."  These  uses  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  more 
difficult  constructions  discussed  in  paragraphs  108-111. 

EXERCISE  5. 

1.  Supply  the  proper  forms   {shall  or  mil)   and  give  your 
reasons: 

1.  I be  glad  to  meet  him. 

2.  I meet  him  at  two  o'clock. 

3.  You be  there  at  ten,  I  suppose. 

4.  He follow  orders  implicitly. 

5.  We surely  make  it  right. 

6.  You never  fool  us  again. 

7.  They find  that  we  mean  what  we  say. 

8.    you  be  ready  by  ten? 

9.    he  be  there  promptly?    Yes,  he . 

10.    he  be  discharged?    No,  he not. 

2.  Supply  the  proper  forms  {should  or  wovM)  and  give  your 
reasons: 

1.  We be  glad  to  have  your  business  in  the  future. 

2.  He be  a  good  salesman  if  he work  harder. 

3.  They be  forced  to  make  the  payment. 

4.  He not  be  given  further  credit. 

5.  We give  him  credit,  but  do  not  feel  that  it  is  for  his 

interest  for  us  to  do  so. 

6.  If  it prove  to  be  true,  it  be  a  serious  thing  for 

their  company. 

7.  Whenever  I be   in   town,    I be   glad  to   meet 

him. 


64  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

8.  If  they only  be  decent  about  it,  we •  meet  them- 

more  than  half  way. 

9.  You not  allow  your  tires  to  be  so  flat. 

10.    They always  answer  in  just  the  same  way. 

3.  Supply  the  proper  forms  {shall,  will,  should,  would),  and 
give  your  reasons: 

1.  If  I find  that  he  was  at  the  head  of  his  class,  I 

recommend  him  for  the  scholairship. 

2.  Shall  I  make  the  offer  more  definite?    Very  well,  I . 

3.    you  be  ready  for  college  next  fall?    I . 

4.  He  have  been  here  now,   if  his  machine  had  not 

broken  down. 

5.  I rather  talk  to  the  manager  himself. 

6.  I give  your  letter  to  the  manager  himself. 

7.  I rather  have  you  go  to  college;  but  if  that be 

impossible,  it be  worth  a  good  deal  to  have  had  this  business 

experience. 

8.  I be  there  if  you . 

9.  I not  fail  to  be  there; you? 

10.    you  reach  the  station  before  I  do,  it be  wise  for 

you  to  check  the  trunks. 

D.  Sequence  of  Tenses. 

113.  The  writer  who  bears  in  mind  that  the  tense  forms 
of  verbs  should  indicate  the  actual  time  of  the  action,  and 
that  in  extended  narration  one  should  avoid  needless  shifts 
from  one  tense  to  another,  will  ordinarily  have  little  trouble 
in  deciding  which  tense  to  use.  A  few  special  situations, 
however,  may  cause  some  difficulty. 

114.  One  somewhat  puzzling  construction  is  the  com- 
pound sentence  involving  a  change  from  a  tense  denoting 
incomplete  action  to  one  denoting  completed  action.  The  rule  in 
this  case  is  to  follow  the  present  tense  by  the  present  perfect, 
and  the  past  tense  by  the  past  perfect. 

I  am  (present,  incomplete)  in  Boston  today,  and  I  have  been  (pres- 
ent perfect,  completed)  here  a  week. 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  65 

I  was  (past,  incomplete)  in  Boston  last  Thursday,  and  I  had  been 
(past  perfect,  completed)  there  a  week. 

115.  Trouble  may  also  arise  over  the  tense  of  the  verb  in 
a  dependent  clause  or  in  an  infinitive  or  participial  phrase. 
In  such  situations,  the  tense  of  the  subordinate  verb  is  always 
reckoned  from  that  of  the  verb  in  the  main  clause,  and  can  be 
determined  in  any  particular  case  only  by  knowing  exactly 
what  meaning  you  wish  to  convey.  These  illustrations  will 
make  clear  the  need  for  nice  discriminations  on  the  part  of 
the  writer : 

(1)  We  did  not  receive  your  order  until  a  week  after  our  arrange- 
ments were  made.     (Probably  inexact) 

We  did  not  receive  your  order  until  a  week  after  our  own 
arrangements  had  been  made.     (Precise) 

(2)  We  hope  to  increase  the  salaries  of  all  our  men,  especially  of 
those  who  were  with  us  for  five  years  or  more.     (Inexact) 

We  hope  to  increase  the  salaries  of  all  our  men,  especially 
of  those  who  have  been  with  us  for  five  years  or  more.     (Precise) 

(3)  We  should  have  been  glad  to  have  had  your  business.  (Proba- 
bly inexact) 

We  should  have  been  glad  to  have  your  business.     (Precise) 
We  should  be  glad  to  have  your  business.     (Precise) 

In  each  of  the  foregoing  the  error  is  not  strictly  grammatical; 
the  sentences  marked  ''inexact"  might  conceivably  be  cor- 
rect. It  is  extremely  improbable,  however,  that  their 
authors  meant  just  what  they  said,  and  more  than  likely 
that  one  or  another  of  the  improved  forms  would  have  been 
more  precise.  (Notice  this  last  sentence:  ''It  is  .  .  . 
more  than  likely  that  one  or  another  of  the  improved  forms 
would  have  been  more  precise."  The  tense  of  would  have 
been  was  determined  by  considering  whether  the  writers 
meant  "would  be  more  precise  now,^^  or  "would  have  been 
more  precise  when  these  sentences  were  first  written.^'  Obviously 
the  second  is  the  preferable  meaning;  hence  the  tense  that 
places  this  whole  part  of  the  action  in  the  past.) 


66  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

116.  One  exception  to  the  rules  set  forth  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs  is  worth  bearing  in  mind.  Statements  of  general 
truths — facts  as  true  today  as  they  were  in  the  past — are 
usually  made  in  the  present  tense,  no  matter  what  may  he  the 
tense  of  the  principal  verb.  Thus  it  is  customary  to  say: 
*'He  added  that  honesty  is  (not  was)  always  the  best  policy." 

EXERCISE  6. 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences  if  alterations  are  necessary, 
giving  reasons  for  any  changes  you  make: 

1.  He  was  in  the  office  Thursday,  and  has  been  there  for  a 
week  before  that. 

2.  The  tires  are  in  good  condition,  and  had  been  inspected 
regularly  every  month. 

3.  There  was  no  chance  to  use  the  machine  before  the  hay 
has  been  cut. 

4.  We  received  your  order  today,  a  week  after  our  Chicago 
office  had  been  closed. 

5.  We  should  have  been  pleased  to  have  met  you  personally. 

6.  We  expect  the  tires  to  be  returned,  although  they  had  been 
used  nearly  sixteen  months. 

7.  We  anticipated  trouble,  for  he  has  always  been  hard  to 
please. 

8.  We  should  have  been  glad  to  have  let  you  place  the  order. 

9.  We  are  glad  to  have  had  you  place  the  order. 

10.  I  would  go  if  I  had  owned  the  farm  myself. 

11.  There  would  have  been  no  trouble  if  I  had  been  there. 

12.  We  were  walking  about  town,  and  suddenly  we  remember 
that  we  ought  to  have  gone  the  other  way. 

13.  I  am  now  in  the  high  school,  and  I  have  been  here  three 
years.    But  my  friend  had  entered  a  year  before  me;  he  is  still  here. 

14.  It  would  have  been  impossible  to  win  the  war  without  the 
help  the  British  navy  had  given. 

15.  England  and  France  were  losing  the  war;  but  the  American 
army  had  come,  and  turned  the  tide. 

16.  No  one  should  have  expected  the  "Y"  to  do  as  much  as  it 
had  done. 

17.  If  the  ''Y"  had  not  been  in  the  field,  there  would  have  been 
much  more  trouble  for  everyone. 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES 


67 


18.  The  craze  for  dancing  in  1914  was  nation-wide;  by  1920  it 
has  died  out  in  many  places. 

19.  I  was  ready  for  college  in  1917;  but  before  the  time  for 
registration  has  arrived,  I  have  decided  to  enter  the  navy. 

20.  There  would  never  have  been  such  efficiency  in  the  navy  if 
the  high  schools  and  colleges  had  not  sent  many  of  their  graduates 
into  the  service. 


E.   Principal  Parts. 

117.  A  few  verbs  offer  certain  difficulties  because  of  the 
ease  with  which  their  forms  are  confused  with  similar  forms 
of  other  verbs  having  quite  different  meanings.  Errors 
occur  most  frequently  in  the  case  of  lay,  lie;  loose,  lose;  raise, 
rise;  set,  sit.  The  following  table  of  the  principal  parts 
(present  tense,  past  tense,  and  past  participle)  of  these  verbs 
will  make  clear  the  distinctions: 


Present. 
lay  (to  place;  transitive) 
lie  (to  recline;  intransitive) 
lie  (to  prevaricate;  intrans.) 

loose  (to  unfasten;  trans.) 
lose  (to  misplace;  trans.) 

raise  (to  elevate;  trans.) 
rise  (to  get  up;  intrans.) 

set  (trans.) 
sit  (intrans.) 


Past. 
laid 
lay 
lied 

Past  Participle. 
laid 
lain 
Ued 

loosed 
lost 

loosed 
lost 

raised 
rose 

raised 
risen 

set 
sat 

set 
sat 

EXERCISE  7. 

Supply  the  proper  form  of  the  necessary  verb: 
■  all  the  morning  in  the  shade. 


the  tires  in  the  shade. 

—  down  each  afternoon  for  half  an  hour. 


1.  We  — 

2.  We  — 

3.  I  have 

4.  Have  you the  books  on  the  table? 

5.  I  am  afraid  he  has about  it. 

6.  I  am  afraid  he  has too  long  in  the  hammock. 


68  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

7.  I  am  afraid  he  has the  tires  in  the  sun. 

8.  If  you the  key,  I  have  another. 

9.  I the  fastenings  with  a  hammer. 

10.  You  should  have the  saddle  girths  as  soon  as  you  had 

finished  your  ride. 

11.  Have  you the  records? 

12.  I here  all  the  morning. 

13.  He  has in  that  chair  an  hour. 

14.  He the  jar  under  the  faucet. 

15.  We  have all  our  clocks  an  hour  ahead. 

16.  We his  salary  ten  dollars  a  week. 

17.  His  salary  has ten  dollars  a  week. 

18.  I at  six  o'clock. 

19.  We  should  have earlier. 

III.    Conjunctions. 

118.  Though  conjunctions  present  few  problems  to  the 
average  writer,  one  or  two  cautions  may  prove  useful. 

119.  One  should  not  confuse  the  coordinating  connec- 
tives and,  hut,  or,  with  subordinating  connectives  such  as 
although,  because,  if,  when,  where,  while.  And,  hut,  or  connect 
elements  of  similar  construction  or  common  dependence; 
because,  when,  where,  while,  etc.,  connect  a  dependent  clause 
with  a  main  clause. 

120.  Confusion  of  the  sort  just  described  arises  most  often 
in  the  use  of  the  conjunction  while.  As  it  is  a  subordinating 
and  not  a  coordinating  connective,  its  use  is  limited  by 
careful  writers  to  dependent  clauses  involving  a  statement 
of  time.  In  the  sentence,  "We  handle  orders  originating 
west  of  Ohio,  while  our  New  York  office  takes  care  of  those 
from  the  east,"  the  relation  between  the  two  clauses  is  really 
one  of  simple  addition,  and  the  proper  connective  is  and,  not 
while.  On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  while  in  the  following 
statement  is  correct,  as  the  relation  the  writer  means  to 
express  is  really  one  of  time:  "We  were  doing  our  best  to 
hurry  your  order  while  they  were  neglecting  ours." 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  69 

121.  Again,  be  particularly  careful  not  to  use  the  prepo- 
sition like  for  the  conjunctions  as,  as  though,  or  as  if.  As  a 
preposition,  Zz/ce  may  be  followed  by  an  object,  but  it  may 
never  introduce  a  clause.  It  is  correct  to  say,  "He  is  like 
his  brother,'*  or  "He  acts  like  his  brother,"  for  in  these 
sentences  like  is  a  preposition  governing  the  object  brother. 
But  to  say  "  Do  it  like  he  does, "  or  "  He  acts  like  he  was  going 
to  order  from  us,"  is  grossly  ungrammatical,  for  here  the 
preposition  like  is  made  to  do  the  work  of  the  conjunctions 
as  and  as  though.  The  sentences  should  read  "Do  it  as  he 
does,"  and  "He  acts  as  though  he  was  going  to  order  from 
us."  When  used  as  a  connective,  like  must  always  he  fol- 
lowed by  a  noun  or  pronoun,  never  by  a  subject  and  verb. 

EXERCISE  8. 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences  if  necessary,  giving  reasons  for 
any  changes  you  make: 

1.  Do  it  like  I  told  you  to. 

2.  He  acted  like  an  experienced  workman. 

3.  They  drill  like  soldiers. 

4.  They  drill  Hke  the  soldiers  do. 

5.  Do  not  act  like  him. 

6.  They  write  like  they  didn't  want  the  order  filled. 

7.  While  the  Ford  is  a  good  car,  there  are  others  that  make 
less  noise. 

8.  It  looked  like  my  old  gun,  and  I  oiled  it  like  I  always  did. 

9.  To  use  like  as  a  conjunction  is  to  misuse  the  language  like 
a  foreigner. 

10.  Some  foreigners  find  it  easy  to  learn  English,  while  others, 
like  the  Chinese,  find  it  very  difficult. 

IV.    Idioms. 

122.  Every  language  contains  numerous  constructions 
which  cannot  be  exactly  paralleled  in  other  languages  and 
which  are  not  susceptible  of  explanation  on  grounds  of  logic 
or  general  grammar.     The  Englishman  or  American  says, 


70  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

for  example,  ''I  am  cold."  To  express  the  same  idea  the 
Frenchman  says,  "II  fait  froid"  (literally,  "it  makes  cold'')» 
and  the  German,  "Mir  ist  kalt"  (literally,  "To  me  is  cold). 
Such  constructions,  many  of  which  are  survivals  from  a  past 
stage  of  the  language,  are  called  idioms. 

123.  A  mastery  of  the  idiomatic  peculiarities  of  the  lan- 
guage is  one  of  the  surest  marks  of  a  skillful  writer.  This 
mastery,  however,  cannot  be  acquired  from  dictionaries  or 
text-books  on  grammar;  it  can  only  come  from  wide  and 
long-continued  reading  of  good  literature  done  with  the 
"idiomatic  eye"  open.  The  most  that  we  can  attempt  here 
is  to  illustrate  the  correct  use  of  a  few  idioms  concerning 
which  writers  or  speakers  frequently  become  confused.  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  majority,  though  not  all,  of  these 
idioms  involve  prepositions: 

According  to  our  agreement  we  are  obliged  to  replace  any  goods 
damaged  in  transit. 

In  accordance  with  our  agreement  we  are  replacing  the  two  chairs 
damaged  in  transit. 

We  agree  with  you  concerning  the  necessity  of  increasing  pro- 
duction. 

We  agree  to  all  your  terms  except  the  last. 

The  directors  were  unable  to  agree  among  themselves  as  to  the 
best  policy  to  adopt. 

He  became  angry  at  the  delay,  (things) 

He  frequently  becomes  angry  with  his  employees,     (persons) 

We  are  not  certain  whom  (not  as  to  whom)  you  have  in  mind. 

We  are  entirely  averse  to  (not  from)  meddling  any  further  in  the 
matter. 

The  movement  may  be  compared  to  the  tacking  of  a  ship. 
Compare  our  soap  with  that  produced  by  any  of  our  competitors, 
and  you  will  at  once  appreciate  its  excellence. 

The  office  force  consists  of  sl  bookkeeper  and  two  stenographers. 
The  merit  of  our  plan  consists  in  its  simplicity. 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  71 

The  functions  of  City  Manager  correspond  in  general  to  those  of 
the  Mayor. 

We  suggest  that  you  correspond  with  us  whenever  you  have  need 
for  new  office  fittings. 

This  firm  deals  in  only  the  more  expensive  makes  of  furniture. 
He  has  dealt  with  us  constantly  for  nearly  a  dozen  years. 

The  result  is  different  from  (not  than  or  to)  what  we  expected. 
Our  methods  are  different  from  (not  than  or  to)  those  of  our  rivals. 
We  are  forced  to  differ  with  you  on  this  question.     (Means 
disagree  with.) 

We  are  glad  that  you  were  pleased  with  the  drill  press  you  pur- 
chased from  us  several  years  ago.  We  are  certain  that  you  will 
find  our  lathes  equally  (not  equally  as)  satisfactory. 

We  cannot  help  feeling  (not  cannot  help  but  feel)  that  you  have  not 
given  our  plan  a  fair  trial. 

He  proposed  of  his  own  accord  to  make  the  damage  good. 
We  do  not  care  to  undertake  it  on  (not  of)  our  own  accord. 

He  climbed  upon  (or  on  to,  not  onto)  the  platform. 

He  took  the  receiver  off  (not  off  of)  its  hook. 

We  are  somewhat  prejudiced  against  him. 

His  conduct  is  prejudicial  to  discipline  among  the  men. 

He  has  become  thoroughly  reconciled  to  the  loss  of  his  influence. 
It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  your  actual  performance  with  the  prom- 
ises made  in  your  letters. 

As  regards  further  extension  of  credit,  we  have  just  one  thing 
to  say. 

With  (or  in)  regard  to  your  request  for  a  further  extension  of 
credit,  we  have  only  one  thing  to  say. 

You  cannot  blame  us  for  becoming  tired  of  waiting  longer  for  an 
answer. 
They  were  tired  with  their  day's  exertion. 

We  shall  wait  for  (not  on)  you  in  the  office. 

124.  Certain  frequently  used  constructions  are  objec- 
tionable on  the  ground  that  they  violate  English  idiom. 


72  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

One  of  these  is  the  use  of  the  relative  pronoun  which  as  an 
adjective.  There  is  something  not  only  clumsy  but  un- 
English  about  such  a  sentence  as  ^'We  have  received  your 
report  of  sales  for  the  month  of  August,  which  report  we  have 
placed  on  file."  It  is  much  better  to  write,  "We  have  re- 
ceived and  placed  on  file  your  report  of  sales  for  the  month  of 
August." 

125.  Some  people  would  include  among  unidiomatic,  and 
therefore  objectionable,  constructions,  the  use  of  a  preposi- 
tion at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  and  of  an  and  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence  or  of  a  paragraph.  This  is  mere  pedantry. 
Sentences  ending  with  a  preposition  sometimes  lack,  it  is 
true,  the  vigor  which  comes  from  concluding  on  an  emphatic 
idea  or  word;  but  this  is  a  matter  of  rhetoric,  not  of  idiom 
or  grammar;  and  frequently,  especially  in  the  somewhat 
familiar  style  suitable  to  most  business  writing,  it  is  better 
to  sacrifice  emphasis  to  the  superior  ease  and  naturalness  of 
the  prepositional  ending.  It  is  better  in  most  cases,  for 
example,  to  write  "We  are  offering  the  most  remarkable 
bargains  you  have  ever  heard  of,"  rather  than  "We  are  offer- 
ing the  most  remarkable  bargains  of  which  you  have  ever 
heard."  The  prohibition  of  an  "an^"  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence  or  paragraph  is  entirely  without  basis  in  usage,  as 
anyone  can  readily  demonstrate  by  turning  over  a  few  pages 
of  almost  any  good  modern  prose  writer. 

EXERCISE  9. 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  making  the  italicized  expressions 
correspond  to  the  best  idiomatic  usage: 

1.  The  workmen  couldn't  agree  with  themselves  as  to  what  they 
wanted. 

2.  He  agreed  with  all  our  requests. 

3.  We  are  sure  as  to  what  sort  of  machine  you  need. 

4.  The  recent  increase  of  prices  should  be  compared  to  that  after 
the  Civil  War. 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  73 

5.  The  moving  part  consists  of  two  elements:  the  crank  and 
the  handle. 

6.  The  uses  of  the   machine  gun  correspond  with  those  of 
the  rifle. 

7.  The  mower  was  entirely  different  to  what  I  had  expected. 

8.  We  differ  from  all  our  competitors. 

9.  The  democratic  candidate  is  equally  as  good  as  the   re- 
pubUcan. 

10.  No  one  who  has  used  it  can  help  hut  like  it. 

IL  When  you  get  off  of  a  moving  car,  be  very  careful. 

12.  As  regards  to  Mr.  Smith,  we  think  very  highly  of  him. 

13.  We  are  thoroughly  tired  with  them. 

14.  I  have  been  waiting  on  you  for  an  hour. 

15.  You  returned  the  goods  on  July  24,  which  shipment  we  have 
just  received. 

V.    A  Glossary  of  Grammatical  Terms. 

Adjective.  A  word  which  modifies,  or  states  the  attributes  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun.  From  the  point  of  view  of  their  position  in 
the  sentence,  adjectives  are  of  two  kinds — attributive  and 
predicate.  An  attributive  adjective  is  one  which  stands  in 
immediate  association  with  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it 
modifies,  as  ''brown  shoestrings,"  "a  capable  salesman."  A 
predicate  adjective  is  one  which  stands  in  the  predicate  of  the 
sentence  after  a  copulative  verb  (am,  ore,  is,  was,  were,  shall 
be,  have  been,  had  been,  become,  seem,  etc.).  Example:  *'The 
order  is  readi/  for  shipment." 

Adverb.  A  word  which  modifies  a  verb,  adjective,  or  other 
adverb.  Examples:  "He  will  go  soon''  (modifies  the  verb 
"go");  ''He  is  unusually  skillful"  (modifies  the  adjective 
"skillful");  "He  works  very  swiftly"  (modifies  the  adverb 
"swftly"). 

Antecedent.  A  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  a  pronoun  refers,  or  in 
place  of  which  it  is  used.  Examples:  "Mr.  Jones  came  home 
Thursday.  He  brought  back  an  unusually  large  number  of 
orders"  (the  noun  "Mr.  Jones"  is  the  antecedent  of  the  personal 
pronoun  "he");  "The  man  who  was  here  yesterday  was  Mr. 
Smith"  (the  noun  "man"  is  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  pro- 
noun "who");  "He  whom  I  described  ..."  (the  pronoun 
*'he"  is  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  pronoun  "whom"). 


74  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

Apposition  (in  apposition  with).  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  said  to  be 
in  apposition  with  another  noun  or  pronoun  when  it  stands 
innnediately  after  the  first  noun  or  pronoun,  with  no  connecting 
word  between  the  two,  and  names  the  same  person  or  thing. 
Example:  "Mr.  Johnson,  president  of  the  company"  ("presi- 
dent" is  in  apposition  with  "Mr.  Johnson"). 

Cardinal  Number.  That  form  of  the  numeral  which  expresses 
directly  the  number  of  units  involved,  as  one,  six,  ten,  twenty- 
five.    See  Ordinal. 

Case.  That  property  of  nouns  or  pronouns  which  indicates  their 
grammatical  relationship  to  other  words.  Modern  EngUsh 
grammar  recognizes  three  cases:  Nominative,  Possessive,  and 
Objective.  Nouns  have  two  forms  for  these  three  cases,  one 
for  the  Nominative  and  Objective,  and  one  for  the  Possessive: 
the  latter  is  normally  characterized  in  the  singular  by  the 
addition  of  's  to  the  simple  form  of  the  noun,  and  in  the  plural 
by  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe  if  the  plural  form  ends  in  s, 
otherwise  by  the  addition  of 's.  For  the  case  forms  of  pronouns, 
see  paragraph  87. 

Clause.  A  group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  predicate. 
Clauses  are  of  two  principal  types — main  or  independent 
clauses,  and  dependent  or  subordinate  clauses.  Main  or  inde- 
pendent clauses  are  clauses  which  are  capable  of  forming  a 
complete  sentence  by  themselves,  as  "Business  has  improved 
greatly  since  the  beginning  of  the  year."  When  two  or  more 
main  clauses  are  grouped  together  in  a  sentence,  they  are  said 
to  be  coordinate  clauses,  as  "We  were  ready,  but  you  caused  a 
delay."  Dependent  or  subordinate  clauses  are  clauses  which 
are  used  in  a  sentence  with  the  function  of  a  single  part  of 
speech  (noun,  adjective,  or  adverb),  and  which,  therefore,  are 
not  capable  of  forming  a  complete  sentence  by  themselves.  A 
dependent  clause  used  in  a  sentence  with  the  function  of  a  noun 
is  called  a  noun  clause.  Example:  "That  business  has  im- 
proved greatly  since  the  beginning  of  the  year  is  becoming  more 
and  more  apparent"  (here  the  italicized  group  of  words  is  used 
as  the  subject  of  the  verb  "is  becoming") .  A  dependent  clause 
used  with  the  function  of  an  adjective,  that  is,  to  modify  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  is  called  an  adjective  clause.  Example: 
"The  goods  which  you  ordered  are  now  ready  to  ship"  (the 
clause  in  itaUcs  modifies  the  noun  "goods").  When  an  adjec-s 
tive  clause,  as  in  this  example,  is  introduced  by  a  relative  pro- 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  75 

noun  it  is  said  to  be  a  relative  clause.  A  dependent  clause  used 
with  the  force  of  an  adverb  is  called  an  adverbial  clause.  Exam- 
ples: "The  goods  had  been  shipped  when  your  telegram  was  re- 
ceived'' (here  the  italicized  clause  modifies  the  verb  ''had  been 
shipped");  ''He  works  more  rapidly  than  you  ever  did"  (here 
the  clause  modifies  the  adverb  ''more  rapidly"). 

Compound  Subject.  A  subject  consisting  of  two  or  more  eo- 
ordinate  elements  as,  "The  engine  and  the  baggage  car  were 
demoHshed." 

Conjunction.  A  word  used  to  join  words  or  groups  of  words  (i.  e,, 
clauses  or  phrases)  in  a  sentence.  Conjunctions  are  of  two 
classes — coordinating  and  subordinating.  The  first  join  words 
or  groups  of  words  of  equal  rank  or  of  the  same  grammatical 
construction;  they  include  and,  but,  or  and  nor.  The  second 
join  dependent  with  independent  clauses.  The  principal 
conjunctions  of  this  type  are  when,  where,  though,  since,  because, 
while,  inasmuch. 

Coordinate.  Any  words  or  groups  of  words  that  modify  the  same 
element  in  the  sentence  in  the  same  way  are  said  to  be  coordi^ 
nate.  So  also  are  two  or  more  main  clauses  in  the  same  seu" 
tence.  The  two  italicized  phrases  in  the  following  sentence  are 
coordinate:  "The  purpose  of  this  letter  is  to  call  your  attention 
to  our  new  plan,  and  to  set  forth  its  merits." 

Declarative.  A  sentence  is  said  to  be  declarative  when  it  asserts 
something  to  be  true.  Example:  "The  market  for  iron  cast- 
ings has  expanded  greatly  in  the  last  two  months." 

Exclamatory.  A  sentence  is  said  to  be  exclamatory  when  it  ex- 
presses strong  surprise  or  other  emotion.  Example:  "To 
think  that  after  all  we  have  done  for  him  he  should  have  left 
us  so  suddenly!" 

Gerund.  A  form  of  the  verb  ending  in  "ing"  used  in  the  sentence 
as  a  noun  but  without  losing  some  of  its  verbal  attributes 
(i.  e.,  ability  to  take  an  object,  to  be  modified  by  an  adverb, 
etc.).  Examples:  "Selling  goods  is  a  fine  art";  "By  going 
to  New  York  he  got  his  contract  approved";  "We  have  no  objec- 
tion to  your  ordering  direct  from  Paris"  {not  "to  you  order- 
ing").   See  also  Phrase. 

Idiom.  A  form  pecuHar  to  any  language;  particularly,  an  expres- 
sion sanctioned  by  usage,  and  not  to  be  explained  grammatically 
or  logically.  Thus,  it  is  idiomatic  to  say,  ''He  is  in  prison j'* 
but  not  to  say  "He  is  in  reformatory," 


76  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

Imperative.  A  sentence  is  said  to  be  imperative  when  it  expresses 
a  command  or  direct  request.  Example:  "Take  advantage  of 
this  offer  at  once." 

Infinitive.  A  form  of  the  verb,  usually  but  not  always  introduced  by 
"to,"  which  is  used  in  a  sentence  either  as  a  noun,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb.  Examples:  "To  believe  his  story  without  proof 
would  be  foolish"  (here  the  infinitive  "to  believe"  introduces 
a  phrase  which  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  "would"); 
'The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  survey  the  field"  (here  the  infinitive 
"to  do"  modifies  "thing");  "We  are  ready  to  grant  you  full 
credit  facilities"  (the  infinitive  "to  grant"  modifies  the  adjec- 
tive "ready").     See  also  Phrase. 

Interrogative.  A  sentence  is  said  to  be  interrogative  when  it  asks 
a  question.  Example:  "Do  you  wish  us  to  ship  by  express  or 
freight?" 

Intransitive.    See  Verb. 

Modifier.  Any  element  in  a  sentence — word,  phrase,  or  clause — 
which  limits  or  explains  another  element. 

Nominative  Absolute.  A  somewhat  unidiomatic  construction  in 
which  a  substantive  in  the  nominative  case  stands  not  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb,  but  in  a  subject-relation  to  a  present  partici- 
ple, the  whole  phrase  being  used  as  an  adverb:  "The  goods 
being  ready,  we  telegraphed  you." 

Noim.  Any  word  whose  function  is  to  name  a  person  or  thing: 
e.  g.,  "dog,"  "goodness,"  "machine,"  "John  Smith."  Several 
classes  of  nouns  may  be  distinguished.  A  Common  Noun  is  the 
name  that  is  applied  to  all  members  of  a  given  class:  as  "ship," 
"chair,"  "typewriter."  A  Proper  Noun  is  the  name  which  k 
used  to  distinguish  an  individual  from  the  other  members  of 
the  same  class;  as,  "Boston,"  "John  Smith,"  "The  Chicago 
Tribune,"  "The  American  Steel  and  Wire  Company."  A 
Collective  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  group  which  can  be  thought  of  as 
a  single  unit  or  as  composed  of  many  individuals;  as,  "commit- 
tee," "squad,"  "firm,"  "company." 

Number.  That  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  usually  expressed 
by  a  distinctive  form,  which  indicates  whether  one  or  more  than 
one  object  or  person  is  designated.  There  are  two  numbers — - 
Singular  and  Plural. 

Object.  The  word  has  three  uses  in  modern  English  grammar — ■ 
namely,  in  the  phrases  "direct  object,"  "indirect  object,"  and 
"object  of  a  preposition."    A  Direct  Object  is  a  word  standing 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  77 

in  the  predicate  of  a  sentence  and  designating  the  person  or 
thing  affected  by  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb;  e,  ^./'He  sent 
me  the  feooA;"  ("Book"  is  the  direct  object  of  "sent").  An 
Indirect  Object  is  a  word  standing  in  the  predicate  and  designatr 
ing  the  person  or  thing  to  whom  or  for  whom  the  action  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb  was  performed  ("Me"  in  the  preceding 
illustration  is  the  indirect  object  of  "sent").  An  Object  of  a 
Preposition  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  the  preposition 
enables  one  to  use  either  as  an  adjective  or  an  adverb.  In  the 
sentence,  "The  contract  was  signed  by  the  President,"  "Presi- 
dent" is  placed  in  an  adverbial  relation  to  the  verb  "signed"  by 
means  of  the  preposition  "by";  it  is  said  to  be  the  object  of  "by." 

Ordinal.  That  form  of  the  numeral  which  indicates  the  place  of  a 
unit  in  a  series;  as  first,  sixth,  tenth,  twenty-fifth.    See  Cardinal. 

Parenthetical.  A  word,  phrase,  or  clause  thrown  into  a  sentence 
that  would  be  grammatically  complete  without  it,  is  said  to  be 
parenthetical.  Examples:  "We  do  not,  however,  intend  to 
accept  his  offer";  "By  waiting  until  spring — this  was  his  argu- 
ment— they  would  find  the  market  much  more  favorable  to 
them." 

Participle.  A  form  of  the  verb  used  in  a  sentence  as  an  adjective. 
There  are  three  forms  of  the  participle,  the  Present,  the  Past, 
and  the  Perfect.  Examples:  "writing"  {present),  "written" 
(past),  "having  written"  (perfect);  "going"  (present),  *'gone" 
(past),  "having  gone"  (perfect);  "loving"  (present),  "loved'* 
(past),  "having  loved"  (perfect).    See  Phrase. 

Passive.    See  Voice. 

Phrase.  A  group  of  words  not  containing  a  subject  and  predicate, 
used  in  a  sentence  with  the  function  of  some  part  of  speech 
(adjective,  adverb,  etc.).  Phrases  are  of  four  classes  according 
to  the  part  of  speech  by  which  they  are  introduced.  An  Infini- 
tive Phrase  is  a  phrase  introduced  by  an  infinitive.  Like  the 
infinitive  by  itself  (see  Infinitive),  it  may  take  the  place  of 
either  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  Example:  "To 
sell  goods  effectively  requires  long  training"  (here  the  phrase  is 
made  up  of  the  infinitive  "to  sell,"  the  object  "goods,"  and  the 
adverb  "effectively";  the  whole  phrase  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  "requires").  A  Participial  Phrase  is  a  phrase  introduced 
by  a  participle.  Though  a  participle  by  itself  is  always  an 
adjective,  and  consequently  must  always  be  attached  to  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  sentence,  a  participial  phrase  may  be 


78  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

used  either  as  an  adjective  (as  in  the  sentence,  "The  man 
unloading  coal  is  an  ItaHan")  or  as  an  adverb  (as  in  the  sentence, 
"  Having  been  out  of  town  for  a  week,  I  have  only  just  read  your 
letter").  A  Gerund  Phrase  is  a  phrase  introduced  by  a  gerund; 
it  is  always  used  as  a  noun.  Examples:  ^^ Running  down  hill 
is  easy"  (here  the  gerund  phrase  is  the  subject  of  the  verb 
''is");  "By  buying  your  coal  in  the  early  summer  you  get  the 
advantage  of  the  lowest  prices"  (here  the  gerund  phrase  is  the 
object  of  the  preposition  ''by";  the  whole  group  "By  .  .  . 
summer"  is  a  prepositional  phrase  modifying  "get").  A 
Prepositional  Phrase  is  a  phrase  introduced  by  a  preposition. 
It  may  be  used  either  as  an  adjective  or  as  an  adverb.  If  the 
former,  it  is  also  called  an  Adjective  Phrase;  if  the  latter,  an 
Adverbial  Phrase.  Examples:  "The  man  at  the  second  desk 
is  the  Manager"  (an  adjective  prepositional  phrase  modifying 
''man*');  "We  are  wilHng  to  wait  until  the  first  of  the  month" 
(an  adverbial  prepositional  phrase  modifying  the  verb  "wait"). 

Predicate.  That  part  of  a  sentence  which  makes  an  assertion 
about  the  subject;  the  verb  and  its  modifiers. 

Predicate  Noun.  A  noun  standing  in  the  predicate  of  a  sentence 
after  a  copulative  verb  {am,  is,  was,  were,  appear,  become,  etc.) 
and  naming  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject.  Example: 
"The  President  of  the  company  is  Mr.  Johnson.''  Pronouns 
may  be  used  in  the  same  construction,  as  "This  is  he." 

Predicate  Substantive.    A  more  general  term  for  "predicate  noun." 

Preposition.  A  word  that  enables  one  to  use  a  substantive  (i.  e.,  a 
noun  or  pronoun)  as  an  adjective  or  adverb.  Thus,  in  the 
following  sentence  the  preposition  "to"  makes  it  possible  for 
the  noun  "city"  to  stand  in  an  adverbial  relation  to  the  verb 
"went":  "He  went  to  the  city."  The  chief  prepositions  in 
EngUsh  are  in,  out,  by,  from,  to,  toward,  for,  against,  beneath, 
above,  besides,  beside,  before,  after,  into,  since,  among,  amid, 
within,  notwithstanding,  on  account  of. 

Principal  Parts.  The  forms  of  a  verb  on  the  basis  of  which  all  the 
others  are  constructed.  In  English,  these  are  the  present 
indicative,  past  indicative,  and  past  participle. 

Pronouns.  A  word  used  in  place  of  a  noun,  referring  to  a  person 
or  thing,  but  not  naming  it.  There  are  five  classes  of  pronouns 
— personal,  relative,  demonstrative,  interrogative,  and  in- 
definite. The  Personal  Pronouns  are  /,  you,  he,  she,  it,  and 
their  various  forms  (me,  our,  them,  etc.).    Their  antecedents 


GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES  79 

may  be  either  persons  or  things;  they  are  called  Personal  Pro- 
nouns because  they  enable  one  to  distinguish  between  the 
person  speaking,  or  First  Person  (7,  we,  etc.),  the  person  spoken 
to,  or  Second  Person  (you),  and  the  person  spoken  of,  or  Third 
Person  {he,  she,  it).  The  Relative  Pronouns  are  who,  which,  that, 
what,  whoever,  whatever,  and  their  various  case  forms.  They 
have  a  double  function;  they  are  pronouns  in  that  they  refer  to 
an  antecedent,  and  they  are  connective  words  in  that  they 
connect  a  dependent  clause  with  some  substantive  in  the  main 
clause.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns  are  this,  that,  these,  and 
those.  Their  function  is  to  refer  emphatically  to  a  person  or 
thing.  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  what. 
They  are  used  to  introduce  questions.  The  Indefinite  Pro^ 
nouns  include  such  words  as  one,  everybody,  some,  all,  which  do 
not  refer  to  a  specific  person  or  thing. 

Sentence.  Grammatically,  a  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  con- 
taining at  least  one  main  clause.  A  sentence  consisting  merely 
of  a  main  clause  is  called  a  Simple  Sentence.  Example:  "It 
pays  to  advertise."  A  sentence  consisting  of  a  main  clause 
and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses  is  called  a  Complex  Sentence, 
Example:  "The  goods  concerning  which  you  wrote  last  week 
had  already  been  shipped  when  your  letter  came"  (this  sentence 
contains  an  adjective  clause,  ''concerning  which  .  .  ,  week" 
and  an  adverbial  clause,  "when  .  .  .  came").  A  sentence 
which  contains  two  or  more  main  clauses  is  called  a  Compound 
Sentence.    Example:    "We  were  ready,  but  you  were  not.'' 

Subject.  That  part  of  a  sentence  of  which  anything  is  affirmed. 
Examples:  ^'The  order  is  ready";  "  'When  will  you  come'  was 
the  telegram." 

Substantive.    A  general  term,  embracing  nouns  and  pronouns. 

Tense.  That  property  of  verbs  which  enables  them,  by  changes 
in  form,  to  indicate  the  time  of  the  action.  There  are  six 
tenses  in  English — ^present,  past,  future,  present  perfect,  past 
perfect,  and  future  perfect. 

Transitive.    See  Verb. 

Verb.  A  word  expressing  action,  being,  etc.,  that  enables  a  sentence 
to  make  a  statement  about  a  subject.  A  verb  followed  by  a 
direct  object  is  said  to  be  a  Transitive  Verb.  Example:  "We 
have  written  two  letters."  A  verb  which  makes  an  assertion 
without  reference  to  any  object  is  said  to  be  Intransitive, 
Example:    "I  have  been  writing  since  dinner  time."    A  verb 


80  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

used  to  help  make  some  form  (tense,  voice,  etc.)  of  another 
verb  is  known  as  as  Auxiliary  Verb.  Example:  "We  shall 
expect  you  on  Saturday"  (here  "shall"  helps  to  form  the  future 
tense  of  "expect").  The  chief  auxihary  verbs  are  be,  have, 
may,  can,  will,  shall,  must,  and  do. 
Voice.  A  transitive  verb  may  make  a  statement  in  two  ways:  it 
may  indicate  that  the  subject  performed  the  action,  or  it  may 
indicate  that  the  action  was  performed  upon  the  subject.  If 
the  former,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Active  Voice;  if  the 
latter,  in  the  Passwe  Foice.  Examples:  "We  caW  your  atten- 
tion to  an  error  in  your  statement"  (active);  "Your  attention 
is  called  to  an  error  in  your  statement"  (passive) .  The  passive 
of  a  verb  is  formed  by  prefixing  some  form  of  the  auxiliary  be 
to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY. 

126.  Words  are  the  tools  of  business.  They  are,  of 
course,  much  more  than  that,  and  a  treatment  of  words 
might  proceed  along  many  lines  besides  the  one  to  which  we 
shall  limit  ourselves.  But  for  the  purposes  of  this  book  it 
will  be  well  to  confine  our  interest  in  words  to  their  practical 
use  as  the  chief  tools  for  the  transaction  of  business. 

127.  When  we  have  thus  fenced  off  the  field  in  which  we 
are  to  work,  we  find  a  twofold  problem :  first,  to  continue  the 
analogy  of  words  as  tools,  we  must  fill  the  carpenter's  chest 
with  an  adequate  selection;  and  second,  we  must  use  these 
chosen  implements  as  effectively  as  possible.  Or — discard- 
ing an  analogy  which  is  perhaps  inappropriate,  because 
words  cannot  be  bought  and  possessed  as  can  a  hammer  or  a 
saw,  and  are  of  but  little  value  till  they  have  been  made  of 
service  through  use — ^we  must  master  the  best  possible  stock 
of  words,  and  must  employ  them  as  well  as  we  can. 

128.  Such  a  problem  demands  hard  work  for  its  solution. 
Even  in  the  cases  of  those  rare  individuals  who  possess  what 
seems  to  be  a  natural  gift  for  using  words,  there  has  usually 
been  far  more  time  spent  in  study  and  practice  than  appears 
on  the  printed  page.  "Easy  reading,  hard  writing;  easy 
writing,  hard  reading, "  is  almost  always  true.  The  average 
student  can  profitably  expend  a  considerable  amount  of 
energy  in  acquiring  and  mastering  a  good  vocabulary. 

129.  But  the  task  need  not  be  irksome.  A  little  analysis 
of  the  problem,  and  a  systematic  approach  to  it,  will  do  much 
to  simplify  its  complications.    Accordingly,  let  us  divide  the 

81 


82  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

question  as  a  whole  into  these  four  parts :  First,  what  should 
a  good  vocabulary  consist  of?  Second,  what  does  it  usually 
consist  of?  Third,  how  can  it  be  enlarged  and  improved? 
And  fourth,  how  can  one  adapt  this  vocabulary  to  his  subject- 
matter  and  his  reader? 

I.    The  Ideal  of  a  Good  Vocabulary. 

130.  What  should  a  good  vocabulary  consist  of?  As 
large  as  possible  a  stock  of  words  that  are  in  good  use;  that 
is,  that  are  used  today,  by  careful  speakers  and  writers, 
throughout  the  country  as  a  whole.  This  is  what  some 
Writers  mean  by  demanding  that  our  words  be  in  present, 
reputable,  and  national  use. 

131.  How  can  one  tell  whether  or  not  a  word  is  in  good 
use?  By  consulting  a  dictionary.  Among  the  larger  or 
unabridged  dictionaries  the  best  for  American  usage  are 
Webster's  International  (G.  and  C.  Merriam  Company)  and 
the  New  Standard  (Funk  &  Wagnalls  Company);  of  the 
smaller  dictionaries  the  most  serviceable  are  perhaps  Web- 
ster's Collegiate  and  The  Desk  Standard.  If  the  student  is 
ever  in  doubt  about  a  word,  he  should  look  it  up,  and  before 
he  uses  it,  make  sure  that  it  is  not  labeled  "obsolete," 
''obsolescent" — becoming  obsolete — ,  ''provincial,"  "vul- 
gar," or  "slang."  If  the  abbreviation  for  any  one  of  these 
terms  appears  after  the  word,  it  is  not  in  good  use,  and  should 
be  avoided. 

EXERCISE  1. 

1.  Look  up  the  following  italicized  words  in  a  dictionary,  and 
mark  those  which  are  not  in  good  use  today,  in  the  sense  in  which 
they  are  used  in  these  sentences: 

1.  A  human  sometimes  acts  foolishly. 

2.  We  had  a  swell  time. 

3.  We  suspected  that  he  was  guilty. 

4.  We  suspicioned  that  he  was  guilty. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  83 

5.  It  is  aggravating  to  be  ill. 

6.  His  sickness  was  aggravated  by  the  accident. 

7.  His  home  run  was  a  corker. 

8.  The  sail  was  ripping  in  one  of  the  seams. 

9.  The  dinner  was  ripping. 

10.  He  allowed  that  it  was  true. 

1 1 .  His  employer  allowed  him  three  weeks  for  his  vacation. 

12.  He  dressed  hke  a  dandy. 

13.  We  had  a  dandy  time. 

14.  We  didn't  enthuse  over  it. 

15.  He  located  in  Des  Moines. 

16.  I  located  the  old  claim  easily. 

17.  The  boat  drifted  onto  the  rock. 

2.  Using  a  large  dictionary,  Hst  all  the  meanings  of  the  follow- 
ing words:  degree,  import,  jar,  joint,  moral,  mute,  offer,  period,  pick, 
pool,  principal,  keep. 

3.  Look  up  the  following  terms,  and  write  their  meanings  in  your 
notebook:  colloquial,  obsolete,  obsolescent,  archaic,  slang,  provincial. 

132.  The  demand  that  a  word  be  in  present  use  suggests 
two  specific  cautions.  First,  avoid  words  which  have  already 
disappeared  as  part  of  the  living  language.  It  is  interesting 
to  know  such  words,  but  they  are  of  little  value  in  ordinary 
writing.  And  second,  avoid  words  which  may  some  day 
be  in  good  use,  but  are  today  too  slangy  or  technical  for  the 
written  page.  The  many  new  words  which  appear  to  have 
come  into  the  language  more  or  less  as  a  result  of  the  w^ar, 
are  interesting  examples  of  international  borrowing,  and 
some  will  probably  establish  themselves  in  good  use.  Camou- 
flage, U-hoat,  poilu,  seventy-five,  Tommy,  duds,  gassed:  these 
and  many  others  are  intelligible  to  almost  everyone.  But 
in  any  except  the  most  informal  writing  it  will  be  well  to  use 
them  sparingly.  Not  only  are  they  new,  but,  curiously 
enough,  they  are  also  already  hackneyed  from  over-use. 

133.  Reputable  words  are,  of  course,  those  which  are 
used  by  careful  writers.  Just  as  at  a  dinner  one  will  not 
offend  by  his  manner  of  eating,  so  he  will  see  to  it  that  the 


84  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

pages  he  writes  are  free  from  offense  in  the  form  of  words 
which  are  either  unduly  colloquial,  or  taboo  in  cultivated 
circles:  words  like  "corker,"  "ripping,"  "rotten,"  etc. 

134.  The  phrase  national  use  almost  defines  itself;  one 
should  avoid  words  that  are  not  current  over  the  country  as  a 
whole.  A  phrase  intelligible,  say,  only  on  the  plains  of  Texas, 
or  the  idiom  "I  want  in  that  room,"  comes  under  this  ban. 
It  is  not  in  good  use  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

135.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  though 
this  geographical  consideration  is  important  in  the  determi- 
nation of  national  usage,  at  least  one  other  point  is  to  be 
borne  in  mind.  Words  or  idioms  which  have  a  wide  geographic 
cal  but  limited  class  or  occupational  usage  are  objectionable 
in  ordinary  writing.  The  newspaper  man,  for  example, 
talks  of  "the  morgue,"  "the  dead-line,"  "the  cub,"  "drop- 
ping the  leads";  but  unless  he  is  writing  for  an  audience  of 
fellow-craftsmen,  or  consciously  striving  to  suggest  the 
atmosphere  of  his  own  office,  he  will  not  use  such  expressions 
in  print.  Similarly,  the  intelligent  business  writer  will  keep 
his  own  work  free  from  technical  words  and  phrases  which, 
though  clear  enough  to  him  and  to  his  immediate  associates, 
may  prove  misleading  or  obscure  to  an  outsider. 

EXERCISE  2. 

1 .  Make  a  list  of  words  that  are  part  of  the  technical  vocabulary 
of  some  game,  business,  or  profession  with  which  you  are  familiar. 
Thus  in  baseball  we  have  strike,  ball,  fly,  grounder,  bunt,  out,  three- 
bagger,  runner,  pitcher,  etc. 

2.  How  many  of  the  words  italicized  in  paragraph  1  are  in  good 
use  in  other  connections? 

3.  What  does  fly  mean  (1)  to  a  housewife?  (2)  to  a  fisherman?  (3) 
to  a  camper?  (4)  to  a  yachtsman?  (5)  to  an  aviator?  (Use  a  dic- 
tionary.) 

136.  So  far  our  advice  about  words  has  been  chiefly 
negative:  strive  to  avoid  words  which  fail  to  pass  the  test  of 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  85 

present,  reputable,  and  national  usage.  There  are,  of  course, 
other  and  more  positive  considerations.  Precision  is  one  of 
them.  A  writer's  vocabulary  should  be  so  ample  that  when 
he  wishes  to  express  a  certain  exact  shade  of  meaning  he  will 
not  have  to  content  himself  with  something  which  vaguely 
suggests  what  he  has  in  mind;  he  will  have  the  one  word  which 
alone  will  say  precisely  what  he  means.  Much  of  Joseph 
Conrad's  power  of  description  can  be  traced  to  his  rare  skill 
in  choosing  words  that  suggest  with  precision  the  picture  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer.  It  would  be  hard  to  change  any  of 
the  italicized  phrases  in  the  following  half-paragraph  from 
Lord  Jim  without  sacrificing  some  of  the  effectiveness  of  the 
whole: 

It  was  the  dusk  of  a  winter's  day.  The  gale  had  freshened  since 
noon,  stopping  the  traffic  on  the  river,  and  now  blew  with  the 
strength  of  a  hurricane  in  fitful  bursts  that  boomed  like  salvoes  of  great 
guns  firing  over  the  stream.  The  rain  slanted  in  sheets  that  flicked 
and  subsided,  and  between  whiles  Jim  had  threatening  glimpses  of 
the  tumbling  tide,  the  small  craft  jumbled  and  tossing  along  the 
shore,  the  motionless  buildings  in  the  driving  mist;  the  broad  ferry- 
boats pitching  ponderously  at  anchor,  the  vast  landing  stages  heaving 
up  and  down  and  smothered  in  sprays.  The  next  gust  seemed  to 
blow  all  this  away.  The  air  was  full  of  flying  water.  There  was 
a  fierce  purpose  in  the  gale,  a  furious  earnestness  in  the  screech  of  the 
wind,  in  the  brutal  tumult  of  earth  and  sky,  that  seemed  directed 
at  him,  and  made  him  hold  his  breath  in  awe.^ 

137.  In  this  connection  again,  the  dictionary,  or  such  a 
book  as  Roget's  Thesaurus  of  English  Words  and  Phrases 
(Everyman's  Library),  is  invaluable.  Take  the  common 
adjective  ready,  for  example.  In  Webster's  New  Inter- 
national these  words  are  Hsted  as  synonyms:  prompt,  expedi- 
tious, speedy,  unhesitating,  dextrous,  apt,  skillful,  handy, 
expert,  facile,  easy,  opportune,  fitted,  prepared,  disposed,  will- 
ing, free,  cheerful.  Instead  now  of  writing,  ^'I  foimd  him 
1  Lard  Jim,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company,  p.  4. 


86  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

always  a  ready  workman,"  it  is  probable  that  you  can  ex- 
press your  meaning  more  precisely  by  using  one  or  two  of  the 
suggested  synonyms. 

EXERCISE  3. 

1.  List  as  many  words  as  you  can  think  of  which  express  the 
varying  shades  of  red  and  blue. 

2.  Look  up  the  itahcized  words  in  the  following  passage,  find 
their  synonyms,  and  see  whether  by  substituting  some  of  the 
synonyms  for  the  originals  you  can  improve  the  passage: 

"Man  has  not  yet  found  a  moot  question  on  which  all  of  right 
and  justice  belonged  to  one  side.  Wherever  there  is  controversy 
there  is  division  of  right  and  division  oi  fault.  The  division  may  not 
be  equal,  but  while  men  remain  imperfect  the  causes  they  espouse 
will  not  he  faultless."    (Saturday  Evening  Post,  May  15,  1920,  p.  29.) 

3.  Look  up  the  synonyms  for  the  following  adjectives:  common, 
usual,  strange,  certain,  ordinary,  strong,  weak,  able. 

4.  From  one  of  the  longer  themes  which  you  have  written  for 
this  course,  list  all  the  important  adjectives  and  verbs;  then  look 
each  one  up  in  a  large  dictionary  or  in  Roget's  Thesaurus  and  record 
all  of  its  synonyms.  In  how  many  cases  can  you  substitute  a  more 
precise  or  effective  word  for  the  one  you  originally  used? 

138.  Of  course  the  business  writer  can  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  work  out  all  the  fine  discriminations  of  meaning 
that  interest  the  literary  artist.  The  precision  with  which 
he  is  concerned,  moreover,  is  precision  of  fact  and  idea  rather 
than  of  sensation  or  feeling.  Nevertheless,  for  everyone 
the  ideal  is  the  same :  that  his  vocabulary  should  be  so  rich 
that  he  can  do  with  it  precisely  what  he  chooses;  that  he  can 
convey  to  his  reader  exactly  what  he  means. 
,  139.  The  student  should  not  be  misled,  however,  into 
the  common  but  erroneous  belief  that  effectiveness  in  writing 
demands  always  the  use  of  unusual  or  "literary"  words. 
Quite  the  contrary  is  true.  Plain,  homely  words  and  idioms 
are  often  more  valuable — more  suggestive  and  full  of 
meaning — than  more  "high-sounding  equivalents.  Do  not 
be  afraid  to  use  them  freely. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  S? 


SOME  HOMELY  WORDS  IN  GOOD   USE.^ 

Ail,  antic,  back  (v.),  balk  (v.),  blackmail,  blink,  boor,  brag, 
brawl,  budge,  bungle,  cant  (n.),  chuckle,  chirl,  clap,  clinch,  clog, 
clutch,  curt,  daft,  daub,  dawdle,  dock  (v.),  dolt,  drone  (v.),  drub, 
fag  (v.),  fang,  fetch,  flinch,  foist,  fumble,  fume,  fuss,  gabble,  gad, 
gang,  garble,  gUb,  glum,  glut,  grub  (v.),  grudge,  gruff,  gulp,  hag, 
haggle,  headstrong,  hearsay,  heave,  hoax,  hobnob,  hodge-podge, 
hoodwink,  huff,  hush-money,  inkUng,  jaunty,  jeer,  job,  jog,  holt, 
kidnap,  knack,  lag,  lank,  leer,  loll,  lout,  lug,  makeshift,  maul,  mess, 
mope,  mumble,  nag  (v.),  new-fangled,  niggardly,  nudge,  odds, 
'offset,  outlandish,  pat  (a.),  peevish,  pert,  plod,  prig,  quack,  qualm, 
quash,  quirk,  quit,  ram  (v.),  rank  (a.),  ransack,  rant,  rip,  romp, 
rot,  ruck,  sag,  scare,  scramble,  scrawl,  scribble,  scuffle,  sham, 
shipshape,  shift,  shirk,  shred,  slam,  slink,  slipshod,  sluggard,  smash, 
smother,  smug,  sneak,  snivel,  snub,  snug,  sop,  spill,  spurt,  squabble, 
squat,  squeamish,  stuff,  sulk,  tang,  tawdry,  tether,  thrash,  truckle, 
tussle,  twit,  underHng,  uproar,  upside-down,  vent,  vixen,  warp, 
whack,  wheedle,  wince,  wrangle. 

EXERCISE  4. 

1.  Choose  ten  words  from  the  foregoing  list,  and  use  each  cor- 
rectly in  a  sentence. 

2.  Look  up  all  the  words  in  this  list  that  you  are  not  familiar 
with,  and  record  their  meanings  in  your  notebook,  with  a  sentence 
of  your  own  composition  to  illustrate  each. 

140.  One  more  idea  in  this  connection :  a  person  engaged 
in  any  special  business  or  profession  should  make  his  own 
technical  vocabulary  as  large  as  possible.  This  does  not  in 
any  way  contradict  what  has  been  said  about  national  usage 
as  a  test  of  a  word's  value;  it  means  merely  that  when  every- 
one around  the  table  is  ''talking  shop, "  or  when  one  is  writing 
for  specialists,  a  specialized,  technical  vocabulary  is  an  asset. 
It  is  the  spoken  shorthand  of  the  craft,  and  though  its  terms 
may  sometimes  appear  unintelligible  to  the  outsider,  it  is  of 
value  on  the  proper  occasion.     In  general,  however,  the 

^  Reprinted  by  permission  from  Baldwin's  Composition:  Oral,  and 
Written,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. ,  p.  149.  - 


88  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

importance  of  a  technical  vocabulary  needs  but  little  em- 
phasis; the  stress  should  be  placed  on  the  other  side.  The 
average  man  picks  up  the  language  of  his  own  business  fast 
enough;  the  danger  is  that  he  will  allow  his  enthusiasm  for 
the  vocabulary  of  his  specialty  to  blind  him  to  the  necessity 
of  enriching  his  store  of  non-professional  words. 

EXERCISE  5. 

Write  a  short  paragraph  explaining  the  exact  meaning  of  each  of 
the  following  technical  terms:  overhead,  turnover,  credits,  balance, 
bond,  cost  plus,  security,  shorts,  common  stock,  preferred  stock. 

II.    The  Shortcomings  of  the  Average  Vocabulary. 

141.  The  poverty  of  our  vocabularies  is  a  well  attested 
fact  You  can  prove  this  by  the  experience  of  any  travellei : 
it  is  easy  to  learn  enough  French,  say,  to  exist  with  comfort 
in  France — to  ask  for  food  and  lodging,  to  enquire  prices, 
and  to  get  the  general  purport  of  newspaper  articles.  Or  you 
can  test  it  by  seeing  how  easily  a  child  of  four,  who  knows 
only  three  or  four  hundred  words,  makes  his  wants  clear,  and 
asks  intelligent  questions. 

142.  The  fact  is  that  about  two  thousand  words  comprise 
the  working  vocabulary  of  the  average  intelligent  person, 
and  that  of  this  whole  number  only  a  few  hundred  are  often 
used.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  indicates  real  poverty,  mental 
poverty,  which  is  the  more  deplorable  because  riches  are  to 
be  had  almost  for  the  asking,  if  only  we  were  not  too  lazy 
to  grasp  them. 

EXERCISE  6. 

Study  the  italicized  words  and  phrases  in  the  following  editorial 
from  the  Saturday  Evening  Post  of  May  15,  1920.^  What  do  they 
mean?    How  many  do  you  ever  use  yourself? 

1  Copyright  1920,  by  the  Curtis  Publishing  Company  of  Philadelphia. 
Reprinted  by  permission. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  89 

THE    POLITICAL   RESURRECTION. 

From  coast  to  coast  the  voters  are  kicking  over  the  traces.  Long 
party-broken  and  trained  to  stand  mthout  hitching,  they  have  sud- 
denly erupted  all  over  the  country  like  a  case  of  confluent  measles 
that  will  be  worse  before  it  is  better.  Voters  are  actually  mixing  in 
national  pohtics  on  their  own  account — unbidden,  unauthorized 
and  uninstructed  by  party  leaders. 

In  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  we  seem  to  have  wiped  out  and  for- 
gotten the  entire  poUtical  education  of  a  lifetime.  In  other  days 
we  believed  that  a  voter's  business  was  to  vote,  and  vote  as  he  was 
told;  that  a  boss'  business  was  to  boss,  to  frame  up  slates,  discover 
issues,  write  platforms  and  announce  candidates,  without  comment, 
advice  or  interference  from  the  rank  and  file  of  the  party. 

About  the  time  winter  thawed  into  spring  a  change  took  place. 
It  was  almost  as  if  the  voter  had  had  a  section  of  his  skull  Ufted 
off  and  had  all  his  old  political  ideas  of  the  sacrosanctity  of  bosses 
removed  and  a  set  of  new  and  opposite  conceptions  neatly  inserted 
in  their  place. 

Watch  him  perform  under  the  stimulus  of  his  newly  implanted 
brain  cells.  He  jeers  openly  at  the  most  sacred  canons  of  political 
behavior.  Without  a  single  by-your-leave  he  tries  to  name  his 
own  presidential  candidate.  He  manifests  small  interest  in  that 
candidate's  party  record  of  affiliations  or  in  the  esteem  or  disesteem  in 
which  he  may  be  held  by  party  satraps.  He  stupefies  his  former 
overlords  by  his  full-throated  announcement  that  he  will  vote  for  the 
man  of  his  choice  on  whatever  ticket  that  man's  name  may  appear. 

The  existing  situation  is  without  parallel  in  American  history. 
Viewed  through  the  eyes  of  the  bosses  it  appears  to  be  a  ghastly  and 
unthinkable  reversion  to  pure  democracy  in  our  government. 

143.  To  the  aid  of  this  limited  and  over-used  vocabulary 
the  average  person  summons  a  fairly  large  assortment  of 
slangy  words  and  expressions,  the  use  of  which  is  generally 
another  indication  of  mental  poverty. 

144.  Generally,  we  say;  not  always.  Without  considering 
the  man  whose  speech  is  slangy  because  he  knows  nothing 
else,  one  will  find  intelligent  persons  using  slang  in  conversa- 
tion, and  to  a  limited  extent  in  writing,  because  they  think 
it  adds  zest  to  what  they  say,  or  breaks  pleasantly  the  serious 


90  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

tone  of  a  long  discourse,  or  is  easily  understood  by  the  maD 
in  the  street. 

145.  Most  people,  indeed,  would  probably  grant  that  at 
times  the  use  of  slang  is  justifiable.  Nevertheless,  despite 
this  feeling,  and  despite  the  argument  that  the  slang  of 
today  will  soon  be  in  good  use,  and  thus  will  cease  to  be 
slang — an  argument  urged  chiefly  by  those  who  are  ignorant 
of  the  facts  and  habits  of  language — these  things  seem  to  be 
true:  that  slang  in  general  is  short-lived,  local,  inexact,  and 
often  vulgar. 

146.  That  slang  is  often  short-lived  will  be  admitted  b> 
anyone  whose  memory  extends  back  for  fifteen  years. 
Already  the  ''skiddoo,"  "hand  him  a  lemon,'*  ''twenty- 
three  for  you"  of  1905  have  lost  their  pungency.  Once  they 
were  on  the  lips  of  nearly  every  high  school  student  in  the 
land;  today  they  are  almost  forgotten.  Not  many  years  ago 
the  latest  bit  of  slang  was  ''off  your  trolley,''  an  expression 
which  though  obviously  inexact,  had  at  times  an  undeniable 
appropriateness.  But  today  it  has  ceased  to  function  as 
part  of  the  everyday  speech  of  the  street.  There  is  no 
reason  for  thinking  that  the  slang  of  today  will  be  any  more 
permanent  than  that  of  two  decades  ago. 

147.  That  much  slang  has  primarily  a  local  significance  is 
equally  easy  to  demonstrate.  To  call  a  man  a  "loop  hound" 
may  mean  something  in  Chicago,  where  everybody  is  aware 
that  the  popular  theaters  and  restaurants  are  within  the  so- 
called  "loop"  of  the  elevated  railways;  but  what  does  it 
mean  to  a  Bostonian?  "Dog-robber"  has  a  definite  sig- 
nificance to  some  army  men;  but  unless  one  has  spent  some 
time  in  uniform  he  will  probably  have  to  search  long  for  its 
meaning:  an  officer's  servant  or  "striker." 

148.  The  inexactness  of  slang  is  another  of  its  obvious 
weaknesses.  The  boy  coming  home  from  his  day  in  the 
country  reports  "some  time,"  and  conveys  a  general  impres- 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  91 

sion,  nothing  more.  "Stunning/'  "great,"  "corking/' 
"swell/'  apply  to  everything  he  likes,  from  a  new  necktie  to 
an  attractive  partner  at  a  dance. 

149.  And  finally,  the  fact  that  much  slang  is  vulgar,  at 
least  in  its  origin,  is  enough  to  condemn  it.  Gentility  and 
slang  may  at  times  be  found  keeping  company;  rowdiness  and 
slang  are  invariable  companions.  The  wise  person  will  make 
sparing  use  of  a  sort  of  speech  against  which  so  serious  an 
indictment  can  be  sustained. 

150.  Again,  the  average  man's  vocabulary  is  padded  with 
a  generous  supply  of  trite  expressions,  which  once,  perhaps, 
were  full  of  meaning,  but  which  today,  because  of  long  and 
careless  use,  add  nothing  of  value  to  conversation  or  writing. 
The  ordinary  business  man's  letter-writing  vocabulary  offers 
ample  illustration  of  this  sort  of  expression.  "Yours  of  the 
21st  inst.  received";  "Enclosed  please  find";  "In  reply  we 
beg  to  state";  "Hoping  for  a  continuation  of  your  favors, 
we  beg  to  remain" — such  expressions,  and  the  many  like 
them  to  be  discussed  in  Chapter  VIII,  have  no  place  in 
modern  business  correspondence.  They  waste  time,  and 
give  an  unnatural  flavor  to  the  letters  in  which  they  are  used. 
They  are  as  out  of  place  as  the  old  frigate  Constitution  in  the 
Atlantic  Fleet. 

151.  Similarly,  phrases  like  the  following,  which  do  not 
often  occur  in  business  correspondence,  but  which  crop  up 
all  too  frequently  in  miscellaneous  written  matter,  ought  by 
all  means  to  be  avoided  in  the  interest  of  fresh  and  sincere 
expression:  "last  but  not  least";  "the  irony  of  fate";  "along 
these  lines";  " venture  the  suggestion " ;  " points  of  interest " ; 
"a  full  measure  of  success";  "for  a  mere  song";  "it  stands 
to  reason";  "in  the  last  analysis";  "slowly  but  surely." 
From  such  threadbare  combinations  it  is  but  a  step  to  the 
country  newspaper's  "lamented  fellow-citizen,"  "plaudits 
of  the  multitude,"  and  "hymeneal  altar." 


92  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

152.  Unfortunately,  too,  the  average  vocabulary  con- 
tains a  large  number  of  words  which,  because  the  objections 
to  them  are  extremely  miscellaneous,  are  perhaps  best  classed 
merely  as  faulty  diction.  Some  of  the  more  common  expres- 
sions of  this  sort  are: 

Ad:  a  colloquial  abbreviation  for  advertisement.  To  be  avoided  in 
writing. 

Affect:  often  confused  with  effect,  which  may  be  either  a  verb  (mean- 
ing to  bring  something  to  pass)  or  a  noun  (meaning  result); 
whereas  affect  is  always  a  verb,  meaning  either  to  influence  or 
to  make  conscious  use  of. 

All  the  farther:  often  used  in  conversation,  but  always  improper, 
as  in  the  sentence,  "This  is  all  the  farther  we  can  go."  Say 
rather,  "This  is  as  far  as  we  can  go,"  or  "We  can  go  no 
farther.^' 

Already:  never  to  be  used  when  the  writer  means  all  ready. 

Alright:  there  is  no  such  word.    An  ignorant  misspelling  for  all  right. 

Auto:  a  contraction  to  be  avoided  in  writing. 

Balance:  often  misused  for  remainder. 

Blame  on:  unidiomatic,  as  in  the  expression,  "We  blame  this  on 
you."    Say,  "We  blame  yon  for  this." 

But  what:  an  awkward  and  unidiomatic  combination,  as  in  the 
sentence,  "I  do  not  doubt  but  what  he  will  be  here."  Say, 
^'but  that  he  will  be  here,"  or,  better,  avoid  the  construction 
entirely,  and  say,  "I  am  sure  he  will  be  here." 

Can:  often  misused  for  may.  Can  denotes  power;  may,  permission. 
"Can  I  lift  this"  in  the  sense  of  "Have  I  strength  enough,"  is 
correct;  "Can  I  go  now?  "  should  generally  be  "May  I  go 
now?" 

Claim:  frequently  misused  for  maintain  or  assert,  as  in  the  sentence, 
''We  claim  that  we  have  the  best  vacuum  cleaner  on  the  mar- 
ket." Its  correct  use  is  illustrated  in  the  following:  "We  claim 
to  be  the  inventors  of  this  device." 

Different:  The  best  American  usage  is  "different  from,"  not  "dif- 
ferent than"  or  "different  to." 

Enthuse:  a  recent  coinage  which  is  not  yet  in  good  use.  Say, 
"Become  enthusiastic,"  or  "show  enthusiasm." 

Get  it:  as  in  "Do  you  get  itf  or  "Do  you  get  meV  Slang:  to  be 
avoided  in  writing. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  93 

Gent:  an  impossible  and  never-to-be-used  abbreviation. 

Gotten:  an  obsolescent  form.  The  past  participle  of  "get'*  is 
"got." 

Had  ought:  as  in  "He  had  ought  to  have  done  it."  Never  correct. 
Say  "He  ought  to  have  done  it." 

Intelligent,  intelligible:  frequently  confused.  Intelligent  means 
"showing  intelligence";  intelligible  means  "capable  of  being 
understood."  Thus  we  speak  of  "an  intelligent  person,"  "an 
intelligent  question,"  but  "an  intelligible  explanation." 

Later,  latter:  often  confused.  Latter  refers  only  to  the  second  of 
two  units  ("The  latter  half  is  the  better");  later  has  various 
uses,  but  never  takes  the  place  of  latter. 

Like :  never  to  be  used  as  a  conjunction  in  place  of  as  or  as  if.  The 
construction  "I  did  it  like  he  did"  is  entirely  indefensible;  say 
"as  he  did."  The  sentence,  "He  looks  like  his  father"  is 
correct;  like  here  is  a  preposition  governing /a^/ier.  But  to  say 
"He  looks  Uke  his  father  does"  is  incorrect,  for  like  is  here  used 
as  a  conjunction. 

Loan:  a  noun,  not  in  good  use  as  a  verb;  say  "lend." 

Locate :  not  a  desirable  substitute  for  settle  or  establish  oneself. 

Lots  of:  as  in  ''lots  of  room  for  improvement."  Not  incorrect,  but 
in  all  except  rather  colloquial  writing  much  or  many  is  to  be 
preferred. 

Most:  an  adjective,  frequently  misused  for  the  adverb  almost,  as  in 
"I  am  most  ready"  or  "Most  every  one  of  them  could  be  reUed 
on  for  a  contribution."    Use  almost  or  nearly  in  both  cases. 

Neither:  a  safe  working  rule  is  not  to  use  neither  unless  it  is  to 
be  followed  by  nor.    Never  say  "  Neither  he  or  I  was  ready." 

Off  of:  unnecessary;  say  off. 

Onto :  though  frequently  used,  onto  is  still  felt  by  many  to  be  an 
unjustifiable  combination  of  on  and  to.  It  is  perhaps  better  to 
avoid  it  on  the  principle  of  not  using  words  that  may  give 
offense  to  some  readers.     Usually  on  or  upon  is  sufficient. 

Party:  often  used  for  person,  but  imjustifiable  except  in  legal  docu- 
ments. 

Phone:  an  admissible  contraction  in  ordinary  conversation;  to  be 
avoided  in  writing. 

Practical,  practicable:  often  confused.  The  distinction  is  illus- 
trated by  the  following:  "He  is  a  practical  (not  too  theoreti- 
cal) man";  but,  "It  is  a  practicable  plan  (capable  of  being  put 
into  practise)." 


94  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

Proof:  not  to  be  misused  for  evidence.  A  piece  of  evidence  is  any- 
thing which  tends  to  estabHsh  a  certain  fact;  enough  evidence 
to  remove  all  doubt  constitutes  proof. 

Proposition:  avoid  the  loose  misuse  of  this  word  for  offer,  state- 
ment,  job,  etc.  "Our  proposition  is  this";  "that  is  a  tough 
proposition^^ '.  both  are  undesirable. 

Proven :  an  obsolete  form  of  the  verb  to  prove,  surviving  in  certain 
legal  phrases,  as,  for  example,  "not  proven."  Good  use  to- 
day favors  proved  as  the  past  participle  of  the  verb. 

Quite:  strictly,  quite  means  entirely — ■  ''the  glass  was  quite  full";  it 
should  be  used  sparingly  in  the  sense  of  somewhat  or  rather. 

Said:  as  an  adjective  with  the  meaning  of  "the  same"  or  "referred 
to  before,"  as  in  the  phrase,  "the  sate?  goods  having  been 
I  shipped,"  this  word  should  be  avoided  in  business  writing.  It 
is  proper  only  in  legal  contexts. 

Same:  as  in  "will  attend  to  same  at  once."  A  rehc  of  the  times 
when  business  letters  were  considered  chiefly  as  legal  records. 
It  has  no  place  in  the  vocabulary  of  today. 

Such:  as  in  "We  sell  men's  furnishings  for  less  than  such  can  be 
procured  for  elsewhere."    Such  is  an  adjective,  not  a  pronoun; 

■         say  "for  less  than  they  can  be  procured  for  elsewhere." 

Suspicion:  a  noun;  never  to  be  used  for  the  verb  "suspect."  Do 
not  say  "I  suspicioned  him  when  I  first  met  him."  Say  "I 
suspected  him,"  or  "I  was  suspicious  of  him." 

That:  frequently  misused  in  place  of  the  adverb  so,  as  in  "We  are 
unable  to  do  it  that  promptly." 

Transpire :  not  to  be  used  for  happen.    It  means  "become  known." 

Without:  a  preposition;  not  to  be  used  for  the  conjunction  unless, 
as  in  the  sentence,  "We  cannot  fill  your  order  without  you  send 
.         us  a  more  specific  address." 

EXERCISE  7. 

1.  Study  the  preceding  list  of  "faulty  diction";  select  the  ten 
words  or  expressions  which  you  think  are  most  apt  to  be  misused, 
and  write  sentences  in  which  they  are  used  correc%.  Thus:  "He 
made  me  a  loan  of  five  hundred  dollars,"  or  "Most  of  us  were  on 
time." 

2.  Study  the  vocabulary  of  one  of  your  longer  themes  written 
early  in  this  course.  How  many  words  or  expressions  similar  to 
those  listed  in  paragraphs  150  and  151  can  you  find?    For  each 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  95 

one  that  you  note  try  to  find  an  equivalent  expression  that  is  at 
once  fresher  and  more  exact. 

III.    Methods  of  Enlarging  One's  Vocabulary. 

153.  We  are  now  ready  for  the  third  of  our  questions: 
How  can  one  improve  his  vocabulary,  and  thus  render  easier 
the  expression  of  his  ideas?  ^ 

154.  First  of  all,  the  student  must  interest  himself  in  the 
problem;  he  must  realize  the  importance  of  a  mastery  of 
words;  must  satisfy  himself  that  so  long  as  his  ideas  are 
cramped  by  a  limited  vocabulary,  he  will  not  express  himself 
as  well  as  he  might. 

155.  Once  he  has  found  himself  in  this  state  of  mind, 
the  next  step  will  follow  inevitably:  he  will  begin  to  pay 
attention  to  the  words  he  reads,  as  well  as  to  those  he  speaks 
or  writes.  And  at  this  point  we  cannot  emphasize  too 
strongly  the  importance  of  reading  good  prose— the  prose 
of  such  masters  of  precise  and  attractive  expression  as 
Macaulay,  Huxley,  Stevenson,  or  Kipling.  From  them,  as 
the  result  either  of  unconscious  absorption  or  of  deliberate 
attention,  the  student  will  most  certainly  derive  a  stock  of 
new  words  that  may  add  immensely  to  the  effectiveness  of 
his  own  writing.  Above  all  he  should  study  their  use  of 
homely  but  expressive  idioms,  their  mastery  of  the  words 
that  give  directness  and  vigor  to  everyday  speech. 

156.  The  process  of  improving  one's  vocabulary  thus 
appears  to  be  twofold:  one  part  negative,  one  positive.  The 
negative  part  consists  of  getting  rid  of  the  undesirable  ele- 
ments; they  are  weeds  in  a  garden.  The  positive  part  must, 
of  course,  be  the  acquisition  and  use  of  new  words.  The 
earnest  student  will  learn  two  or  three  a  week,  jotting  them 
down  in  his  notebook,  satisfying  himself  of  their  exact  mean- 
ing, and  then  he  will  use  them  in  his  speech  and  writing;  it  will 
do  no  good  merely  to  list  them  in  a  book.     Moreover,  as 


96  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

Professor  Palmer  urges  in  his  valuable  Self-CuUivation  in 
English,,  he  should  not  be  self-conscious  about  these  new 
possessions,  but  should  use  them  audaciously.  He  will 
become  accustomed  to  their  sound  before  long.  They  can 
never  be  a  part  of  his  living  vocabulary  till  he  can  use  them 
without  any  feeling  of  constraint  or  unfamiliarity. 

157.  When  once  a  person  begins  an  honest  attempt  thus 
to  enlarge  his  stock  of  words,  he  will  be  doubly  pleased.  He 
will  be  astonished  at  the  rapidity  with  which  his  vocabulary 
will  grow;  and  he  will  be  surprised  at  the  usefulness  of  the 
new  acquisitions. 

158.  To  be  sure,  mere  linguistic  fluency  will  not  insure  a 
man's  success  in  business.  Other  things  being  equal,  how- 
ever, of  two  men,  the  one  who  has  a  better  vocabulary,  and 
uses  it  more  effectively,  will  advance  more  rapidly  than  his 
similarly  endowed  but  dumb  competitor. 

EXERCISE  8. 

1.  In  the  following  selection  from  an  editorial  in  the  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  May  15,  1920,i  mark  the  words  which  you  do  not 
habitually  use,  but  which  you  should  add  to  your  working  vocabu- 
lary. Look  up  their  meaning,  and  use  ten  of  them  in  a  letter 
written  to  a  friend. 

HIGH  SPOTS. 

As  a  people  we  are  suffering  from  an  aggravated  case  of  watching 
the  high  spots.  The  disease  is  not  altogether  new,  but  the  present 
attack  is  serious.  Its  ravages  have  already  made  the  patient  blind 
to  the  everyday,  wholesome  foundations  of  life. 

The  chief  symptom  is  easy  to  recognize.  It  consists  in  a  failure 
to  be  interested  in  anything  except  the  unrepresentative,  the  excep- 
tional, the  extreme.  Finally  the  patient  reaches  an  advanced 
stage  of  the  malady,  when  he  feels  competent  to  judge  and  condemn 
civilization  wholly  by  its  froth  and  fringes. 

The  brain  and  nervous  system  of  modern  man,  like  other  organs 

1  Copyright  1920,  by  the  Curtis  Publishing  Company  of  Philadelphia. 
Reprinted  by  permission. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  97 

or  systems  of  the  human  body,  are  the  result  of  long  evolution* 
Thus  when  people  become  abnormally  excitable  they  always  tend  to 
go  back  to  more  primitive  levels.  When  a  man  is  angry  or  excited 
he  acts  like  his  ancestors  of  a  hundred  thousand  years  ago.  The 
poise,  reason  and  intellect  so  painfully  acquired  through  long  cen- 
turies are  thrust  aside. 

When  people  go  back  to  these  primitive  levels  they  are  like 
children.  They  are  interested  in  the  eccentric  and  the  bizarre. 
They  are  on  the  circus  level  instead  of  being  sensible  and  rational. 

What  this  country  needs  is  a  revival  of  its  sense  of  proportion. 
We  shiver  naturally  enough  at  the  news  of  strikes,  industrial  unrest 
and  red  riots,  and  there  is  plenty  of  all  three,  but  when  we  walk 
down  the  street  we  fail  to  notice  the  workmen  who  are  quietly  plying 
their  trades  with  every  appearance  of  industry. 

2.  Start  today  keeping  a  list  of  useful  new  words,  not  technical 
or  very  unusual  terms.  Find  them  anywhere,  put  them  down  in 
your  notebook,  and  bring  to  class  each  day  at  least  one  new  one 
that  you  have  learned.     Use  them,  in  your  writing  and  your  speech. 

IV.    Adaptation  of  Vocabulary. 

159.  The  clause  "who  .  .  .  uses  it  more  effectively," 
in  the  last  sentence  of  paragraph  158,  is  the  clue  to  the  fourth 
part  of  the  present  problem.  Words  are  of  no  value  unless 
one  uses  them,  and  successful  use  of  words  depends  to  a  large 
extent  on  skill  in  selection  or  adaptation. 

160.  In  the  first  place,  words  must  he  well  adapted  to  the 
subject-matter.  Precision,  as  we  have  already  said,  is  essen- 
tial. By  all  means  avoid  inexact  words,  unnecessary  ex- 
aggerations; choose  words  that  are  precise. 

161.  Sometimes  one  can  gain  exactness  by  employing 
specific  or  concrete  in  place  of  general  or  abstract  words.  A 
general  word  often  indicates  lack  of  careful  thinking,  and 
usually  leaves  a  hazy  impression  on  the  reader.  The  con- 
crete word,  moreover,  by  furnishing  the  reader  with  a  specific 
image,  has  the  very  desirable  effect  of  arousing  his  interest. 
Three  sentences  from  Kipling's  "The  Ride  of  Little  Toomai, " 


98  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

describing  the  rush  of  the  elephant  Kala  Nag  through  the 
jungle,  will  illustrate  the  value  of  concreteness  more  aptly 
than  many  pages  of  theorizing: 

The  branches  closed  over  his  head  again,  and  Kala  Nag  began 
to  go  down  into  the  valley — ^not  quietly  this  time,  but  as  a  runaway 
gun  goes  down  a  steep  bank — in  one  rush.  The  huge  limbs  moved 
as  steadily  as  pistons,  eight  feet  to  each  stride,  and  the  wrinkled  skin 
of  the  elbow-points  rustled.  The  undergrowth  on  either  side  of  him 
ripped  with  a  noise  like  torn  canvas,  and  the  saplings  that  he  heaved 
away  right  and  left  with  his  shoulders  sprang  hack  again,  and  hanged 
him  in  the  flank,  and  great  trails  of  creepers,  all  matted  together, 
hung  from  his  tusks  as  he  threw  his  head  from  side  to  side  and  plowed 
out  his  pathway. 

162.  Here  the  student  may  perhaps  object:  ^' Yes,  I  can 
see  how  valuable  an  element  concreteness  is  in  'literature/ 
But  I  am  not  concerned  with  writing  'literature';  my  task 
will  be  to  produce  letters  that  will  make  more  business  for 
myself  or  my  firm."  At  bottom,  however,  the  two  problems 
are  precisely  the  same.  For  example,  the  writer  of  the 
following  sales  letter  could  have  increased  its  general  effective- 
ness by  using  more  concrete  terms.  It  was  written  to  a 
farmer  who  was  interested  in  small  gasoline  engines: 

We  are  sure  you  will  like  this  engine  and  appreciate  its  good 
points.  It  has  all  the  merits  of  No.  24A,  which  we  handled  last 
j'^ear,  and  in  addition  has  several  new  features.  We  should  he  glad  to 
arrange  with  you  for  a  demonstration  at  your  farm. 

Something  like  this  would  have  been  much  better: 

You  will  like  this  engine.  It  is  better  than  No.  24A,  which  we 
handled  last  year,  because  it  will  do  all  the  work  of  the  old  one,  and 
in  addition  run  more  quietly,  start  more  easily,  use  less  gas,  and 
take  up  less  room  on  the  floor.  When  may  we  bring  one  out  to  your 
farm  for  a  demonstration? 

Without  any  undue  increase  in  the  total  number  of  words, 
the  merely  general  expressions  italicized  in  the  first  version 
of  this  letter  have  become  specific  in  the  second. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  99 

163.  Again,  one  can  frequently  gain  exactness  and  hence 
effectiveness  by  preferring  a  simple,  direct  word  or  phrase 
to  an  expression  which,  though  perhaps  more  striking  in 
itself,  has  yet  become  hackneyed  by  over-use.  Why  is  it 
that  trite  words  and  phrases  like  those  hsted  in  paragraphs 
150  and  151  add  nothing  to  any  written  work?  The  reason 
is  simple:  having  lost  through  much  handling  the  precise 
significance  they  may  once  have  possessed,  such  expressions 
actually  obscure  the  writer's  thought;  instead  of  illuminating 
the  subject  under  discussion,  they  really  befog  it.  Their 
very  commonplaceness,  moreover — that  quality  which  makes 
them  so  easy  for  the  careless  writer  to  use — creates  an  un- 
favorable impression.  They  are  thus  adapted  neither  to 
the  subject-matter  nor  to  the  reader. 

EXERCISE  9. 

1.  Write  a  theme  of  two  or  three  pages  on  one  of  the  following 
subjects,  paying  special  attention  to  choosing  words  that  are 
precise,  specific,  concrete,  and  simple: 

A  saw  mill. 

A  trolley-car. 

Playing  first  base. 

A  picture  you  see  often. 

An  old  house. 

Changing  an  automobile  tire. 

Picking  cotton. 

Harvesting  wheat. 

Cutting  down  a  tree. 

A  picturesque  tree. 

An  interesting  store-window. 

Trying  on  a  new  hat  (or  dress). 

An  old  horse. 

A  deserted  farm. 

A  tractor. 

Running  an  elevator  in  an  office  building. 


100  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

2.  Imagine  that  some  article  belonging  to  you  or  your  house- 
hold has  been  lost  or  stolen.  In  from  four  to  ten  lines  describe  it  so 
accurately  as  to  distinguish  it  from  other  articles  of  the  same  sort  or 
class  (for  example,  a  ring,  a  pocket-book,  a  horse,  an  automobile). 

164.  This  second  concern,  of  adapting  words  to  the  reader j 
involves  a  good  many  considerations.  One  of  them  has  to 
do  with  the  matter  of  tone.  Just  as  certain  subjects  require 
a  more  dignified  tone  than  others,  so  one's  common  sense 
tells  one  that  different  people  should  be  addressed  ui  different 
ways.  Language  should  be  a  bridge  between  the  writer's 
mind  and  the  reader's;  it  should  never  drop  a  veil  between 
the  two.  It  should  arouse  the  reader's  interest,  should  be 
readily  intelligible,  stimulating,  suggestiye,  and  never  irritat- 
ing or  baffling. 

165.  Here  are  three  letters  advertising  the  same  washing 
machine,  addressed  respectively  to  a  housewife,  her  husband, 
and  a  Peoria  firm.  The  tone  of  each  letter  is  adapted  to  its 
particular  reader,  and  all  of  the  letters  are  as  vivid  and  full 
of  suggestion  as  possible: 

(1) 

Dear  Madam: 

Which  is  harder,  to  scrub  the  clothes  as  your  grandmother  used 
to  do,  or  to  sit  in  a  rocking  chair  and  read  a  magazine?  What 
would  you  give  to  have  that  Monday  morning  job  of  boiling,  scrub- 
bing, and  wringing  taken  off  your  hands?  How  much  would  it 
be  worth  to  you  to  be  able  to  spend  "Blue  Monday"  with  the 
children,  or  to  drive  to  town  with  your  husband,  without  knowing 
that  the  sheets  and  table  cloths  were  waiting  to  make  life  miserable 
when  you  got  back?    It  would  be  worth  a  lot,  wouldn't  it? 

Well,  we  can  free  your  Mondays  of  all  their  drudgery.  We  can 
make  them  the  best  instead  of  the  worst  days  in  the  week.  For 
only  three  dollars  a  month — and  not  for  many  months,  either — 
you  can  sit  in  your  rocking  chair  and  read  your  favorite  magazine, 
while  "Hercules"  does  the  washing — ^yes,  the  scrubbing  and  the 
wringing,  too.  Do  you  beHeve  us?  Sign  your  name  now  on  the 
enclosed  postal  card,  and  let  us  prove  what  we  say! 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VpC4J2ULARl  101 

(2) 

Mr.  Up-to-date  Farmer: 

Why  did  you  buy  a  tractor?  Because  you  had  worn  out  too 
many  horses  breaking  up  those  acres  of  corn  land. 

Why  did  you  buy  a  milking  machine?  Because  you  and  the 
boys  had  got  tired  of  that  everlasting  job,  morning  and  night,  365 
days  in  the  year. 

You  bought  a  tractor  to  spare  your  horses,  and  a  milking  machine 
to  spare  yourself.  Of  course  both  machines  helped  you  make  more 
money,  but  that  was  only  an  incidental  matter. 

Well,  now,  what  is  the  hardest  job  your  wife  has?  You  don't 
need  to  think  twice:  it  is  the  washing — scrubbing  and  wringing 
those  work  shirts  of  yours,  the  towels  the  hired  men  wipe  their 
hands  on.  You've  seen  her  at  it.  Why  not  be  as  kind  to  her  as 
you  were  to  your  horses  and  yourself?  Why  not  take  that  back- 
breaking  job  away  from  her  and  give  it  to  a  machine? 

It  can't  be  done?  Oh,  yes  it  can.  Just  sign  this  postal  card — 
it  doesn't  put  you  under  any  obligation — and  we'll  bring  a  "Hercu- 
les" washer  out  to  your  place  and  show  you  that  we  are  telling  the 
truth.  Don't  think  twice  about  this — treat  your  wife  as  well  as 
you  do  your  horses. 

(3) 

The  A.  B.  C.  Co., 
Peoria,  Illinois. 

Gentlemen: 

Your  success  in  handUng  the  "Hercules"  tractor  and  milker 
leads  us  to  hope  that  you  will  be  interested  in  the  latest  addition 
to  our  Une,  the  "Hercules"  washing  machine.  It  is  planned  with 
particular  reference  to  the  needs  of  the  farmer,  and  will  sell  even 
better  than  our  other  products. 

When  Mr.  Brown  is  in  Peoria  next  month  he  will  be  glad  to  give 
you  any  information  concerning  the  machine,  and  to  arrange  for  a 
demonstration  at  your  office. 

Yours  very  truly, 
J.  F.  Smith, 
The  Hercules  Company. 


102  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

EXERCISE  10. 

Choose  either  (1)  or  (2),  and  (3): 

1.  Write  two  letters  describing  a  baseball  game,  or  the  making 
of  hay,  the  first  to  some  one  who  knows  nothing  about  the  subject; 
the  second  to  a  young  man  who  has  been  a  farmer  or  a  ball-player  a 
good  many  years. 

2.  Write  two  letters  describing  a  pair  of  socks  you  have  just 
knitted,  or  some  piece  of  sewing  you  have  done;  the  first  to  a  man 
who  knows  nothing  about  either  knitting  or  sewing,  and  the  second 
to  a  woman  who  is  an  expert  in  both. 

3.  Imagine  yourself  trying  to  sell  something  that  you  know 
about:  a  sewing  machine,  an  automobile,  a  scythe,  a  wheel-hoe,  a 
flannel  shirt,  a  pair  of  new  army  shoes,  a  middy-blouse,  an  apron, 
etc.  Write  two  letters,  the  first  to  some  one  who  knows  nothing 
of  the  merits  of  your  goods;  the  second  to  a  man  who  has  bought 
regularly  of  you,  and  needs  only  to  be  reminded  to  buy  again. 

166.  One  negative  suggestion  in  this  connection,  to  avoid 
anything  that  will  create  friction  between  the  writer  and  the 
reader,  is  capable  of  lengthy  development,  and  we  shall  have 
more  to  say  about  it  in  the  chapter  on  Business  Correspon- 
dence. A  few  remarks  must  suffice  here.  One  should  be 
cautious  about  using  technical  terms,  unnecessarily  learned 
or  bookish  words.  They  may  make  for  exactness  under 
certain  circumstances;  they  would  obviously  be  out  of  place 
in  a  letter  to  a  small  merchant  in  the  country.  Foreign 
words — especially  phrases  which  at  times  appear  in  the 
conversation  of  persons  eager  to  seem  "  cultured '' — are 
nearly  always  inappropriate.  As  for  slang  and  colloquial- 
isms, although  at  times  they  may  seem  effective,  the  best  rule 
is  to  be  on  the  safe  side.     They  may  be  offensive. 

167.  Too  many  words  are  sure  to  annoy  an  intelligent 
reader.  Study  condensation.  Many  times  a  phrase  will  do 
the  work  of  a  clause,  a  word  that  of  a  phrase.  This  does 
not  mean,  of  course,  that  one  should  write  in  short,  choppy 
sentences.     It  means  what  Benjamin  Franklin  had  in  mind 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  103 

when  he  said  that  his  whole  rhetoric  consisted  of  this  simple 
rule:     ^'Use  no  unnecessary  words." 

168.  The  following  letter  is  a  characteristic  example  of  a 
sort  of  wordiness  which  to  the  writer  probably  appeared 
praiseworthy;  he  thought  that  he  had  composed  an  unusually 
suave  and  business-like  document.  As  a  matter  of  fact  he 
merely  wasted  time — ^his  own,  his  stenographer's,  and  his 
correspondent's. 

Gentlemen: 

We  should  like  to  state  that  an  examination  of  our  records  shows 
no  such  order  as  your  favor  of  the  15th  inst.  refers  to.  Though  it 
is  possible  that  one  of  our  clerks  failed  to  make  proper  entry  of  your 
order,  we  doubt  very  much  whether  this  is  the  case,  and  are  forced 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  letter  containing  this  order  has  mis- 
carried in  the  mails.  If  you  will  kindly  send  us  a  duplicate,  we  will 
be  pleased  to  give  it  our  immediate  attention. 

What  he  should  have  written  was  something  hke  this: 

Gentlemen: 

We  find  no  record  of  the  order  mentioned  in  your  letter  of  the 
15th,  and  fear  it  must  have  been  lost  in  the  mail.  If  you  will 
send  us  a  duplicate,  we  will  attend  to  it  at  once. 

EXERCISE  11. 

1.  Rewrite  the  following  letters,  avoiding  the  unfortunate 
wordiness,  but  being  sure  that  the  new  versions  are  absolutely  clear: 

(a)  Your  invitation  to  come  to  New  York  for  a  conference  reached 
me  yesterday.  Unfortunately  there  are  no  Sunday  trains  to  St. 
Johnsbury;  hence  I  shall  have  to  go  by  motor  from  here,  and  then 
take  the  Quebec  sleeper  for  Springfield.  I  do  not  know  just  when 
the  connecting  train  from  Springfield  reaches  New  York,  but  think 
it  will  be  some  time  about  ten  in  the  morning.  At  any  rate,  you 
may  expect  me  before  noon  on  Monday,  as  you  requested. 

(6)  Your  esteemed  letter  enquiring  about  Mr.  John  Smith  has 
been  received  and  referred  to  me.  I  find  on  examination  of  our 
records  that  Mr.  Smith  has  done  business  with  our  house  for  twenty 


104  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

years,  and  that  he  has  always  been  prompt  in  payment.  We  have 
never  had  to  send  more  than  one  statement.  His  credit  with  us, 
accordingly,  is  excellent,  though  he  has  never  run  accounts  of  more 
than  $300.00  a  month. 

His  annual  report  on  the  state  of  his  own  business  shows  that  it  is 
growing  steadily,  in  what  we  think  to  be  a  sound  manner.  So  far 
as  we  know  there  is  no  reason  for  not  extending  liberal  credit  terms 
to  him;  in  fact,  we  should  say  from  our  experience  that  he  is  an 
unusually  desirable  customer. 

Assuring  you  that  it  has  been  a  pleasure  to  serve  you,  we  remain, 

Yours  very  truly, 

X.  Y.   Z. 

2.  Without  changing  the  meaning  of  the  following  sentences, 
rid  them  of  unnecessary  words  by  reducing  the  number  of  affir- 
mations wherever  possible,  by  substituting  single  words  for  phrases, 
and  phrases  for  clauses,  and  by  eliminating  mere  verbiage: 

1.  There  is  one  point  about  which  I  have  as  yet  been  unable  to 
make  up  my  mind. 

2.  We  wish  to  say  that  we  appreciate  the  confidence  you  have 
reposed  in  us. 

3.  Pursuant  to  your  conversation  with  our  Mr.  Jones,  we  beg 
to  advise  that  we  have  45  of  your  liners  which  are  too  small  for 
our  use,  and  also  39  of  the  same  which  are  damaged. 

4.  The  examination  was  a  long  and  difficult  one. 

5.  What  we  had  to  eat  was  not  as  well  prepared  as  we  had 
hoped  it  would  be. 

6.  I  came  to  this  university  in  order  that  I  might  be  near  to 
my  home  during  my  college  course. 

7.  The  house  of  Mr.  Kennedy  is  the  one  which  stands  on  the 
north-east  corner. 

8.  A  very  interesting  thing  that  was  to  be  seen  at  the  exhi- 
bition was  a  model  of  a  typical  network  of  British  front-line 
trenches. 

9.  The  book  which  lies  on  the  desk  contains  much  detail 
that  is  very  illuminating  with  regard  to  this  subject. 

10.  A  feefing  of  terror  that  cannot  be  described  came  upon  me. 

11.  There  is  one  school  of  reformers  which  advocates  the  so- 
ciafization  of  credit  as  the  surest  cure  for  our  present  economic 
difficulties. 


I 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY  105 

3.  Take  two  of  your  earlier  themes  and  criticize  them  in  accord- 
ance with  the  suggestions  in  paragraphs  167  and  168.  See  how 
many  words  you  can  ehminate  without  changing  or  weakening  the 
thought. 

169.  Mere  theorizing  about  good  diction,  however,  and 
scrupulous  care  in  the  avoidance  of  the  common  errors,  will 
never  make  one's  writing  effective.  If  words  are  to  do  their 
full  part  in  business,  they  must  be  fresh,  vivid  words,  aglow 
with  the  writer's  personality,  and  able  to  awaken  in  his 
reader  a  responsive  interest.  Just  here  is  the  mystery. 
One  man  writes  correctly,  but  leaves  you  unmoved;  the  next 
touches  something  that  answers.  It  is  evanescent  and 
intangible,  this  quality  which  we  call  style;  but  though  the 
attainment  is  difficult,  the  pursuit  is  fascinating,  and  not 
futile. 


CHAPTER  V. 
THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES. 

170.  Before  taking  up  the  question  of  sentence  structure, 
the  student  should  be  sure  that  he  understands  what  a 
sentence  really  is.  It  is  not  any  collection  of  words  that 
begins  with  a  capital  letter  and  ends  with  a  period;  it  is  a 
group  of  words  that  contains  at  least  one  complete  idea  expressed 
in  an  independent  clause.  ''Referring  to  yours  of  the  21st" 
is  not  a  sentence;  the  idea  is  incomplete,  and  the  fragmentary 
idea  that  is  expressed  appears  in  a  participial  phrase,  which 
should  always  be  dependent  upon,  or  attached  to,  an  in- 
dependent clause.  "We  are  unable  to  ship  till  November  1. 
Because  of  the  strike."  Of  these  two  groups  of  words,  the 
first  is  a  complete  grammatical  unit,  and  is  properly  punctu- 
ated as  a  sentence;  the  second  is  not  complete;  it  is  again  a 
mere  fragment — this  time  a  dependent  clause — and  has  no 
right  to  stand  betwe^  two  periods.  To  this  statement  of 
the  normal  nature  of  a  sentence,  the  only  common  exceptions 
are  expressions  like  ''Yes,"  "Of  course  not,"  "Certainly," 
which  usually  occur  only  in  dialogue. 

171.  The  next  task  is  to  see  what  sorts  of  sentences  are 
good,  and  what  are  not.  The  discussion  will  be  simple  and 
practical,  despite  the  fact  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  avoid 
the  famihar  rhetorical  terms  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Empha- 
sis. But  no  one  should  be  alarmed  at  the  presence  of  these 
suggestions  of  formal  rhetoric.  They  stand  for  perfectly 
real  psychological  facts,  as  necessary  for  the  business  writer 
to  take  into  account  as  for  the  literary  essayist.  What  they 
suggest  is  simply  this:  that  it  is  difficult  for  a  reader  to  grasp 

106 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      107 

more  than  one  idea  at  a  time;  that  a  badly  arranged  sen- 
tence will  inevitably  be  confusing;  and  that  unless  the 
important  ideas  in  a  sentence  are  made  to  appear  important, 
the  reader  will  be  misled. 

I.    Unity. 

172.  In  any  sentence  the  first  rhetorical  essential  is 
Unity.  No  sentence  is  unified  unless  it  contains  a  complete 
idea,  expressed  in  a  grammatically  independent  statement. 

173.  Three  simple  cautions  will  clear  up  the  whole 
matter:  (A)  Each  sentence  should  contain  enough  to  make 
it  a  grammatical  and  rhetorical  unit;  (B)  No  sentence  should 
contain  too  much — ^better  too  few  words,  or  too  few  ideas, 
than  too  many;  and  (C)  If  a  sentence  contains  more  than 
one  clause,  and  the  idea  expressed  in  one  is  of  greater  impor- 
tance than  that  expressed  in  the  other,  the  construction  should 
indicate  clearly  which  is  the  main  idea,  and  which  the  sub- 
ordinate. 

A.    Include  Enough  in  Each  Sentence. 

174.  First,  each  sentence  should  contain  enough  to  mike  it  a 
grammatical  and  rhetorical  unit.  The  writer  who  does  not 
realize  that  every  group  of  words  which  he  punctuates  as  a 
sentence  must  contain  at  least  one  independent  clause  is 
likely  to  produce  such  ungrammatical  expressions  as  the 
following : 

Answering  yours  of  the  21st. 

We  have  sent  you  one  gross  No.  22B.  Because  we  are  out  of  No* 
^3.    Due  to  the  action  of  the  War  Industries  Board. 

We  are  obliged  to  refuse  your  request  for  an  extension  of  time. 
Because  we  make  it  a  rule  to  treat  all  our  customers  alike. 

Each  of  the  italicized  groups  of  words  is  grammatically  in- 
complete.   The  first  is  a  participial  phrase;  the  second  and 


108  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

fourth,  adverbial  clauses;   the  third,  an  adjective  phrase. 
None  of  them  should  be  punctuated  as  sentences. 

EXERCISE  1. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  stating  the  reasons  for  the  changes 
you  make: 

1.  In  this  book  we  studied  many  rules.  Those  which  were 
most  serviceable  to  us. 

2.  The  papers  are  corrected  by  the  instructor  and  then  re- 
turned to  us.    Thus  giving  us  a  chance  to  see  our  own  mistakes. 

3.  After  we  made  something  in  the  shop,  it  was  exhibited. 
And  usually  sold. 

4.  In  reply  to  yours  of  the  25th.  We  are  unable  to  employ 
any  additional  salesman  at  present.  Because  conditions  have 
made  it  necessary  for  us  to  cut  down  our  selling  force. 

5.  Answering  your  recent  letter  we  beg  to  state.  That  we 
shall  be  glad  to  extend  credit  to  Mr.  Smith  on  our  usual  terms. 

6.  Most  of  my  experience  has  been  in  the  office.  Although 
for  six  months  I  worked  in  the  shop,  learning  the  business. 

7.  None  of  the  men  had  any  real  grievance.  Because  of  our 
profit-sharing  plan. 

8.  We  did  not  have  the  right  material  to  work  with.  Not  even 
a  globe  for  geography  and  the  only  map  of  the  United  States  was 
at  least  thirty  years  old. 

9.  School  was  to  me  a  wonderful  world.  A  world  in  which 
several  of  my  friends  were  already  living. 

10.  The  spectator  often  notices  that  the  players  are  penalized 
for  breaking  certain  rules  governing  the  game.  Like  the  rule  against 
guarding  an  opponent  with  both  hands  at  once. 

11.  The  next  game  was  the  Iowa-Purdue  game.  Iowa  winning 
from  the  heavy  Boiler-makers  by  a  large  score. 

12.  Then  it  began  to  snow.  Not  in  nice  big,  soft  flakes,  but  in 
cutting  blasts  that  stung  your  face,  blinded  you,  and  got  into  your 
hair  and  down  your  neck. 

13.  There  are  two  cautions  to  observe  in  the  use  of  the  telephone. 
CalUng  the  number  and  speaking  so  that  the  other  person  may  hear 
distinctly. 

175.  Some  careless  writers  split  into  two  or  three  gram- 
matical sentences  an  idea  which  might  better  be  expressed  in 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES   109 

one.  In  such  cases  the  error  is  rhetorical  rather  than  gram- 
matical, as  in  the  following : 

We  are  out  of  these  goods.  We  have  already  written  to  our 
manufacturers  for  more.  They  will  ship  to  us  on  May  1.  We 
should  receive  the  shipment  on  May  10.  Then  we  can  re-ship 
to  you  on  May  11. 

Here,  in  contrast  with  the  expressions  in  paragraph  174,  each 
unit  of  the  whole  is  grammatically  correct;  that  is,  it  con- 
tains an  independent  clause.  But  notice  how  much  more 
effective  it  would  be  to  combine  the  five  sentences  into  two, 
perhaps  after  this  fashion: 

We  are  out  of  these  goods,but  have  already  ordered  from  the  man- 
ufacturers. They  will  ship  to  us  on  May  1,  and  if  we  receive  the 
goods  in  ten  days,  we  can  re-ship  to  you  by  the  11th. 

EXERCISE  2. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  stating  the  reasons  for  the  changes 
you  make: 

1.  We  studied  Manual  Training.  This  is  most  important  for 
boys.  The  girls  took  Domestic  Science.  This  taught  them  to 
keep  house.  , 

2.  I  joined  the  group  of  workmen.  With  them  I  entered  the 
main  building.  I  allowed  myself  to  be  carried  along  by  the 
crowd.  Soon  I  found  myself  in  the  main  factory.  Among  all 
the  machines. 

3.  There  are  six  salesmen  at  present.  Each  of  them  has  a 
definite  territory  to  cover.  They  report  their  sales  each  day.  At 
the  end  of  each  week  they  send  in  summaries. 

4.  I  saved  all  my  pictures  and  made  a  kodak  book.  I  found 
this  very  interesting. 

5.  Some  of  the  pictures  we  took  were  good  and  some  were  not. 
As  a  rule,  we  had  good  luck  for  beginners.  Anyway  the  work  was 
very  enjoyable. 

6.  Below  the  chutes  are  the  "sorters."  These  are  huge  steel 
screens.  They  are  about  twenty  feet  wide  and  thirty  feet  long, 
and  are  nearly  level.  In  fact,  they  slope  only  about  an  inch  to 
the  foot. 


110  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

7.  I  do  not  like  trigonometry.  There  are  many  reasons 
for  this. 

8.  I  talked  first  with  the  registrar  and  was  then  sent  to  Mr. 
Perkins,  who  had  been  appointed  my  adviser.  I  had  much  difficulty 
in  finding  Mr.  Perkins.  I  chased  from  building  to  building  until 
I  found  him. 

B.    Do  NOT  Include  too  Much. 

176.  The  second  suggestion,  that  no  sentence  should  contain 
too  much,  is  quite  as  important  as  the  first.  Business  letters 
are  full  of  gross  violations  of  this  principle,  violations  that 
might  easily  have  been  avoided  had  the  writer  had  his  wits 
about  him.  Sometimes  the  error  is  partly  one  of  faulty 
punctuation.  As  has  already  been  stated  (paragraph  54), 
the  best  usage  of  the  present  day  demands  that  a  semicolon, 
not  a  comma,  be  placed  between  two  independent  clauses 
not  connected  by  one  of  the  coordinating  conjunctions  {and, 
hut,  or,  nor).  It  is  a  violation  of  this  all  but  universally 
accepted  principle  to  write  such  a  sentence  as  the  following : 

Now,  Mr.  Brown,  we  wrote  you  ten  days  ago  saying  that  if  there 
was  any  good  reason  for  your  needing  an  extension,  we  would  grant 
it  willingly,  you  have  not  answered  that  letter  in  any  way,  we  feel 
sure,  therefore,  that  there  is  none. 

To  crowd  three  such  distinct  statements  as  these  into  one 
sentence  is  to  make  that  sentence  do  more  than  it  can  do 
effectively;  to  this  extent  the  difiSculty  is  not  merely  one 
of  punctuation.  But  try  substituting  semicolons  for  the 
commas  after  willingly  and  way,  and  you  will  see  that  the 
whole  is  greatly  improved.  It  would  be  better,  however, 
to  split  the  whole  into  two  parts,  thus: 

Now,  Mr.  Brown,  we  wrote  you  ten  days  ago  saying  that  if  there 
was  any  good  reason  for  your  needing  an  extension,  we  would 
grant  it  willingly.  Since  you  have  not  answered  that  letter  in  any 
way,  we  feel  sure  that  there  is  none. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      111 

177.    Again,  people  write  sentences  like  the  following: 

We  have  not  heard  from  you  since  May  1,  so  we  conclude  that 
the  engine  reached  you  in  good  condition. 

We  are  out  of  No.  28B,  accordingly  we  substitute  No.  29. 

The  most  obvious  objection  to  these  sentences  is  that  they  are 
poorly  punctuated.  So  and  accordingly  are  not  coordinate 
conjunctions;  they  are  merely  adverbs  with  a  certain  connec- 
tive meaning.  Usage  requires,  therefore,  that  the  clauses 
introduced  by  them  be  separated  from  the  preceding  clauses 
by  a  mark  of  punctuation  at  least  as  strong  as  a  semicolon. 
A  mere  change  in  punctuation  from  a  comma  to  a  semicolon 
would  not,  it  is  true,  transform  the  sentences  into  thoroughly 
satisfactory  expressions  of  the  thought  the  writers  wished  to 
convey.  It  would  be  better  in  both  cases  to  subordinate 
the  first  clause  and  so  to  lay  greater  stress  on  the  second  and 
more  important  idea,  thus: 

Since  we  have  not  heard  from  you  since  May  1,  we  conclude  that 
the  engine  reached  you  in  good  condition. 
As  we  are  out  of  No.  28B,  we  substitute  No.  29. 

But  at  present  the  important  thing  to  remember  is  that 
so,  accordingly,  hence,  therefore,  wherefore,  moreover,  however, 
then,  are  not  coordinating  conjunctions,  and  that  when  one 
of  them  introduces  the  second  clause  of  a  sentence,  these  two 
clauses  should  be  separated  by  a  semicolon. 

EXERCISE  3. 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  stating  the  reasons  for  whatever 
changes  you  make: 

1.  A  man  walked  down  the  street  as  if  in  search  of  shelter. 
We  approached  him,  he  was  a  queer-looking  person,  he  was  tall 
and  heavily  built,  by  his  clothes  one  would  judge  that  he  was  a 
laborer,  a  large  hat  was  pulled  down  over  his  head. 

2.  Upon  our  arrival  the  hall  was  already  crowded,  so  we  had 
to  stand  in  the  rear. 


112  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

3.  While  a  small  boy  I  worked  in  a  drug  store  after  hours, 
although  too  young  to  do  much  I  was  deeply  interested  in  the 
mysterious  names  on  the  bottles. 

-    4.    I  was  unable  to  stand  the  hard  work  in  the  shop,  accord- 
ingly I  got  a  transfer  to  the  office. 

5.  After  my  schooling  I  went  to  work  and  helped  my  younger 
brother  through  school,  he  is  now  working  and  taking  care  of  my 
mother. 

6.  He  was  an  excellent  workman,  accordingly  he  was  promoted 
rapidly. 

7.  We  have  written  three  times  about  this  matter,  and  you 
have  made  no  reply,  accordingly  we  feel  justified  in  saying  that 
unless  we  hear  from  you  by  May  1,  we  shall  place  the  matter  in  the 
hands  of  om*  attorney,  and  he  will  start  suit. 

8.  He  had  explained  in  person  that  he  should  be  unable  to 
come,  therefore  he  considered  a  letter  unnecessary. 

9.  The  finish  was  at  hand,  continuing  our  wild  course  we 
mounted  the  curbing  and  at  a  speed  of  forty  miles  an  hour  smashed 
into  a  tree. 

10.  We  were  off,  with  every  turn  of  the  wheels  the  buggy  gained 
momentum. 

1 1 .  My  father  would  not  let  any  of  us  talk  when  we  were  out  for  a 
drive,  he  said  it  made  him  nervous. 

12.  Unusually  on  the  last  day  a  meeting  is  held,  then  accounts 
are  shown  and  business  and  rules  discussed. 

13.  A  good  salesman  is  popular,  therefore  he  must  smile  as  often 
as  possible. 

14.  There  was  no  way  of  getting  over  the  road  at  this  point, 
consequently  the  only  thing  that  we  could  do  was  to  make  a 
detour. 

15.  Going  to  bed  on  another  evening  you  find  your  bed 
clothes  missing,  some  one  has  invaded  your  room  and  played  a 
joke  on  you. 

16.  The  water  is  unusually  deep  at  the  foot  of  the  rocks, 
so  there  is  little  danger  of  getting  hurt  by  striking  the  rocky 
bottom. 

17.  The  challenge  has  been  thrown  out  to  us,  will  we  take  it,  or 
let  it  pass? 

178.  Another  type  of  sentence  which  contains  too  much 
is  that  which  is  usually  called  too  "loose,"  or  "stringy." 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      113 

This  one,  for  instance,  is  grammatically  correct,  but  very 
ineffective: 

We  wrote  you  a  week  ago  about  the  shipment  of  bolts  you  sent 
us  on  May  10,  and  explained  that  we  had  sent  no  such  order,  and 
asked  for  instructions  concerning  their  disposal,  for  we  cannot 
possibly  use  them  ourselves,  and  should  not  have  accepted  them 
from  the  transportation  company  had  we  known  what  the  shipment 
contained.  i- 

Even  worse  is  the  following: 
Your  favor  of  recent  date  requesting  information  about  Mr. 


of  Janesville  is  at  hand,  and  in  reply  we  beg  to  state  that  we  have 

had  Mr. 's  account  on  our  books  for  ten  years,  but  know  very 

little  coDceming  him,  for  he  opened  his  account  by  depositing 
$5000.00  in  cash  in  our  savings'  department,  and  has  neither  added 
to  nor  withdrawn  from  that  account  since,  merely  sending  in  his 
book  once  or  twice  a  year  to  have  the  interest  entered. 

In  the  following  rewritten  version,  the  two  main  points: 
receive  each  a  separate  sentence,  and  all  the  paraphernalia 
of  stiff  phraseology  is  eliminated. 

Mr.  of  Janesville,  concerning  whom  you  inquire  in  your 

recent  letter,  has  had  an  account  with  us  for  ten  years.  But  we 
know  very  little  about  him,  for  since  making  his  first  deposit  of 
$5000.00  he  has  merely  sent  in  his  savings'  book  once  or  twice  a 
year  to  have  the  interest  entered. 

179.  The  lawyer,  intent  on  including  in  each  of  his  sen- 
tences everything  that  could  possibly  be  useful  in  fixing  the 
meaning,  is  perhaps  more  given  than  other  men  to  the  writing 
of  long,  ununified  sentences.  Caring  nothing  for  style  as 
such,  and  very  deferential  to  precedent,  he  produces  such 
sentences  as  this,  thinking  that  he  has  made  a  good  job  of  it 
because  there  is  no  ambiguity  anywhere: 

The  party  of  the  first  part  agrees  and  covenants  with  the  party 
of  the  second  part  to  pay  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  the  sum 
of  ten  thousand  dollars  ($10,000.00)  in  five  equal  installments  of 
two  thousand  dollars  ($2,000.00)  each,  payable  on  the  first  days  of 
January  in  each  of  the  following  years,  namely,  the  year  1920,  the 


114  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

year  1921,  the  year  1922,  the  year  1923,  and  the  year  1924,  and  the 
party  of  the  second  part  agrees  and  covenants  that  when  and  if 
the  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  have  made  these  five  payments  in 
full  and  on  the  days  when  they  are  due,  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part  will  release  the  party  of  the  first  part  from  all  claims  under 
the  action  specified  in  section  2,  above,  of  this  agreement,  but  if 
the  party  of  the  first  part  shall  fail  to  make  the  payments  specified 
above  when  and  as  they  shall  become  due,  or  any  of  them,  then  the 
party  of  the  second  part  shall  be  at  full  liberty  to  proceed  against 
the  party  of  the  first  part  in  the  manner  set  forth  in  section  2,  above, 
of  this  agreement. 

In  this  by  no  means  unusual  example,  it  would  have  been 
much  better  to  divide  the  whole  into  three  sentences,  thus : 

The  party  of  the  first  part  .  .  .  year  1924.  The  party  of  the 
second  part  .  .  .  section  2  above,  of  this  agreement.  But  if  .  .  . 
of  this  agreement. 

The  rewritten  form  is  just  as  sound,  legally,  as  the  original; 
moreover,  it  is  easier  to  understand,  because  it  does  not  keep 
one's  mind  too  long  on  the  stretch.  When  one  idea  is  com- 
plete, that  completeness  is  indicated  by  a  period. 
.  180.  Logically  more  obj  ectionable  than  the  long, "  stringy' ' 
sentence,  is  that  in  which  unrelated  ideas  are  crowded  together 
between  two  periods. 

I  ask  to  be  considered  for  the  position  of  rodman.  I  graduated 
from  the  Oak  Park  High  School  in  1917,  and  at  once  entered  the 
navy.  I  am  21  years  old,  and  Mr.  C.  P.  Jones  of  your  firm  can 
tell  you  about  my  character  and  reputation. 

There  is,  of  course,  only  the  remotest  connection  between 
the  fact  that  the  writer  is  21  years  old  and  that  he  is  known 
to  Mr.  Jones. 

We  want  to  sell  a  separator  to  every  farmer  in  Orleans  County, 
and  have  won  the  friendship  of  936  men  in  New  Hampshire. 

In  this  case  there  is  a  slight  logical  connection  between  the 
two  ideas,  but  it  is  not  close  enough  to  warrant  jumbling 
them  together  in  one  sentence. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      115 

EXERCISE  4. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  stating  the  reasons  for  the  changes 
you  make : 

1.  The  boss  let  it  go  at  that,  but  a  few  days  later  he  called  me 
in  for  a  private  talk  and  suggested  that  I  apply  for  the  position, 
and  said  he  would  recommend  me,  so  I  sent  in  my  letter. 

2.  There  are  ninety  students  in  our  class  who  are  going  into 
business,  mostly  mto  offices,  but  I  am  eighteen  years  old  and  want 
to  work  in  a  factory. 

3.  I  told  my  employers  the  circumstances  concerning  the  acci- 
dent,- but  this  did  no  good,  then  I  told  them  they  could  get  some- 
one else  in  my  place,  which  was  perfectly  satisfactory  to  them. 

4.  In  a  large  city  one  comes  in  contact  with  men  of  many  differ- 
ent sorts,  and  the  restaurants  and  theatres  are  entertaining  if  you 
have  always  lived  in  the  country. 

5.  Until  the  latter  part  of  July,  I  had  made  no  definite  selection 

of  a  school,  but  for  various  reasons  I  preferred and  finally,  after 

considering  everything,  I  decided  that  I  could  do  better  here  and 
have  greater  advantages  than  in  any  other  school  in  the  Middle 
West,  and  so  I  wrote  for  credit  blanks,  upon  receipt  of  which  I 
immediately  forwarded  them  to  the  principal  of  the  school  from 
which  I  had  just  graduated. 

6.  Everyone  helped  to  carry  the  provisions  ashore,  and  then 
part  hunted  wood  for  the  bonfire,  while  some  went  for  water  and 
others  helped  to  spread  the  picnic  dinner,  which  we  were  eagerly 
awaiting,  for  we  had  had  a  very  early  lunch. 

7.  In  a  city  of  this  size  one  comes  m  contact  with  many  different 
people,  and  one  of  these  who  impressed  me  greatly  I  will  try  to 
describe. 

8.  The  white  caps  are  perfectly  beautiful,  and  one  is  able  to  see 
them  stretching  to  the  horizon,  and  when  the  white  caps  are  dashed 
upon  the  shore,  one  is  able  to  see  the  shore  a  long  distance  away, 
it  seems  as  if  the  water  were  being  churned  by  them. 

9.  Whatever  questions  I  asked  were  answered  in  EngUsh  except 
by  the  beginners  who  had  not  yet  learned  English,  and  it  was  with 
this  class  that  I  had  the  greatest  difficulty. 

10.  At  high  school  we  had  sketching  to  do,  and  one  of  my  first 
sketches  was  of  our  house  and  lawn,  and  I  was  really  quite  sur- 
prised when  the  teacher  immediately  recognized  it. 


116  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

C.   Importance  of  Proper  Subordination. 

181.  The  third  and  last  of  the  cautions  concerning  unity 
is  this:  When  a  sentence  contains  more  than  one  clause,  and 
the  idea  expressed  in  one  is  logically  of  greater  importance  than 
that  expressed  in  the  other,  the  construction  should  indicate 
clearly  which  clause  contains  the  main  idea,  and  which  the 
subordinate.  Or,  to  put  the  matter  in  more  specific  terms, 
use  an  independent  clause  to  state  the  most  important  idea, 
and  dependent  constructions  of  one  kind  or  another — 
adverbial  clauses  beginning  with  when,  where,  since,  as,  etc., 
adjective  clauses,  participial  phrases,  etc., — to  express  the 
ideas  of  less  importance. 

182.  The  reason  for  this  somewhat  forbidding  "rule" 
will  be  apparent  to  anyone  who  will  read  the  following  two 
sentences : 

(1)  We  received  your  letter  canceling  the  order  when  the  goods 
were  already  in  the  freight  car. 

(2)  When  we  received  your  letter  canceling  the  order,  the  goods 
were  already  in  the  freight  car. 

In  (1)  it  is  obvious  that  the  clause  "when  the  goods  were 
already  in  the  freight  car, "  is  dependent  upon,  or  subordinate 
to,  the  main  clause,  "We  received  your  letter."  This  is 
quite  proper,  if  the  most  important  idea,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  writer,  is  that  the  letter  arrived.  But  if  the 
writer  feels — as  most  readers  will  think  he  should  feel — that 
the  idea  of  chief  importance  is  that  the  goods  were  in  the  car 
when  the  letter  came,  then  form  (1)  is  unfortunate,  since  it 
puts  this  chief  idea  in  a  subordinate  clause.  Form  (2)  is  in 
this  case  the  one  to  be  preferred. 

183.  Here  is  another  example  of  the  same  sort  of  thing: 

(1)  Concealing  all  indications  of  his  wound,  he  walked  quietly 
at  the  head  of  the  column. 

(2)  Walking  at  the  head  of  the  column,  he  concealed  all  indi- 
cations of  his  wound. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      117 

In  (1)  the  participial  phrase  "concealmg  all  indications  of 
his  wound"  is  the  dependent  element;  the  participle 
modifies,  and  is  dependent  upon,  the  grammatical  subject, 
he.  This  is  a  proper  arrangement  of  the  sentence,  if  the 
most  important  idea  to  be  expressed  is  that  he  walked  at  the 
head  of  the  column.  But  if  the  significant  or  interesting  fact 
is  that  he  concealed  all  indications  of  his  wound,  then  this  idea 
should  be  expressed  in  the  independent  clause,  as  in  (2). 

EXERCISE  5. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  if  revision  would  change  or  im- 
prove them,  and  give  reasons  for  the  changes  you  make: 

1.  Your  letter  reached  us  when  it  was  too  late  to  stop  the  ship- 
ment. 

2.  When  we  had  just  decided  to  promote  him  he  resigned. 

3.  He  was  cool  and  collected,  talking  to  the  men  and  pacifying 
them. 

4.  Gladly  accepting  his  offer,  we  wrote  at  once  in  reply. 

5.  These  woodsmen  are  very  skilful  in  their  work,  and  the 
largest  trees  are  felled  in  a  very  short  time. 

6.  I  had  sauntered  along  a  block  when  a  big  soldier  seized  me 
and  demanded  to  know  where  I  was  going. 

7.  He  was  busily  engaged  in  carving  the  turkey  and  just  then 
there  came  a  tremendous  rap  at  the  door. 

8.  The  weather  at  these  times  of  the  year  is  very  pleasant  and 
it  makes  a  person  want  to  be  out  of  doors  all  the  time. 

9.  It  was  about  ten  years  ago  on  a  very  cold  Thanksgiving  even- 
ing, and  the  ground  was  heavily  laden  with  snow.  My  folks  and 
I  were  very  comfortable,  seated  around  the  fireplace,  roasting 
marshmallows, 

10.  There  is  an  increasing  demand  for  instructors  in  physical 
culture,  and  it  is  my  desire  to  take  up  physical  training,  but  as  yet 
I  have  been  unable  to  do  so. 

11.  "Oh,  I  didn't  know  that  you  were  in  town!"  I  exclaimed,  and 
she  answered  that  she  had  been  back  for  some  time. 

12.  We  were  about  five  miles  from  the  lake  when  we  heard  a 
crashing  of  brush  about  fifty  yards  from  the  trail  and  out  ran  a  big 
black  bear. 


118  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

13.  Last  year  was  my  first  year  there  and  one  of  the  most  amus- 
ing things  happened. 

14.  Every  cent  of  money  that  you  collect  or  that  you  give  out 
should  be  carefully  recorded  in  your  books  and  you  will  not  get 
in  trouble  with  anyone. 

15.  I  was  about  ten  years  old  when  I  persuaded  my  mother  to 
let  me  take  piano  lessons. 

II.    Coherence. 

A.  Misplaced  Modifiers. 

184.  Here  is  an  old  illustration  that  will  make  clear  at 
once  the  desirability  of  coherence  in  sentences: 

''Piano  for  sale  by  a  gentleman  in  an  oak  case  with  hand-carved 
legs." 

Obviously  the  words  italicized  were  intended  to  modify 
piano,  yet  because  they  were  misplaced,  and  seem  to  modify 
gentleman,  the  resulting  meaning  is  ludicrous.  The  writer 
who  is  careful  to  keep  together  in  the  sentence  the  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses  that  belong  together,  will  not  be  bothered  by  this 
sort  of  incoherence.  The  five  following  illustrations  make 
clear  different  sorts  of  misplacements,  and  methods  of 
rectifying  them : 

(1)  We  told  you  when  the  goods  arrived  we  would  make  the 
shipment. 

What  does  the  clause  "when  the  goods  arrived"  modify? 
One  cannot  tell.  The  sentence  should  have  been  cast  in  one 
of  the  two  following  forms;  they  mean  quite  different  things: 

When  the  goods  arrived  we  told  you  we  would  make  the  shipment. 
We  told  you  we  would  make  the  shipment  when  the  goods  arrived. 

(2)  The  colors  maroon  and  olive  are  pleasing  to  the  eye  as  found 
on  the  body  of  this  car. 

Here,  of  course,  the  writer  meant  the  ^^  colors  as  found  on  the 
body  of  the  car";  but  he  said  '^eye  as  found  on  the  body  of 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      119 

the  car.''  He  should  have  written;  ''The  colors  maroon  and 
olive,  as  found  on  the  body  of  this  car,  are  pleasing  to  the 
eye." 

(3)  When  half  worn  out,  you  can  get  lots  more  mileage  out  of 
your  tires  if  you  will  let  us  re-tread  them. 

In  this  case  the  sense  is  clear  enough,  after  a  fashion;  but 
strictly  the  phrase  ''when  half  worn  out"  seems  to  modify 
"you,"  the  pronoun  nearest  it.  Logically  it  modifies 
"tires, "  and  should  have  been  placed  so  that  this  relationship 
would  be  clear,  as  thus:  "You  can  get  lots  more  mileage 
from  your  half-worn-out  tires  if  you  will  let  us  re-tread  them." 

(4)  We  only  need  three  more  days  to  finish  the  job. 

We  do  not  ever  intend  to  place  an  order  with  them  again. 
This  is  the  best  job  we  almost  ever  saw. 
The  firm  has  just  been  organized,  and  has  no  business  as 
yet,  scarcely. 

In  these  sentences  the  incoherence  is  due  to  the  misplacing 
of  single  words:  only,  ever,  almost,  and  scarcely.  Though  it 
may  be  clear  what  the  meaning  of  the  statements  really  is, 
that  clearness  is  due  to  the  intuition  of  the  reader,  not  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  words.  A  careful  writer  would  have 
phrased  them  thus: 

We  need  only  three  more  days  to  finish  the  job. 
We  do  not  intend  ever  to  place  an  order  with  them  again. 
This  is  almost  the  best  job  we  ever  saw. 

The  firm  has  just  been  organized,  and  as  yet  has  scarcely  any 
business. 

(5)  To  carefully  inventory  the  stock  will  take  three  months. 
He  asked  us  to  cordially  greet  every  new  customer. 
There  is  no  reason  to  again  discuss  the  matter. 

These  sentences  are  examples  of  what  is  commonly  known 
as  the  "split  infinitive"— a  construction  in  which  an  adverb 
intervenes  between  the  so-called  "sign  of  the  infinitive"  (to) 


120  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

and  the  infinitive  proper.  It  is  well  to  avoid  the  construction 
whenever  possible — and  it  usually  is  possible — because  it 
is  awkward,  and  because  there  is  a  very  general  prejudice 
against  it  among  careful  writers  and  readers.  The  sentences 
would  have  been  better  thus: 

Carefully  to  inventory  the  stock  {or  to  make  a  careful  inventory 
of  the  stock)  will  take  three  months. 

He  asked  us  to  greet  each  new  customer  cordially. 
There  is  no  reason  to  discuss  the  matter  again. 

(This  last  sentence  is  slightly  unidiomatic :  it  would  be  much 
better  to  say  ''for  discussing.") 

185.  It  is  not  possible,  nor  would  it  be  helpful,  to  illus- 
trate all  of  the  ways  in  which  a  writer  may  go  astray  through 
misplacing  his  modifiers.  It  is  better  for  the  student  to  fix 
his  mind  steadfastly  on  the  positive  aspect  of  the  matter,  and 
endeavor  in  whatever  he  writes  to  place  all  modifying  expres- 
sions, he  they  single  words,  prepositional  or  participial  phrases, 
adjective  or  adverbial  clauses,  as  close  as  possible  to  the  words 
they  are  designed  to  modify.  Thus  he  will  gradually,  but 
surely,  form  the  habit  of  constructing  sentences  that  say 
exactly  what  he  intends  them  to  say. 

EXERCISE  6. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons  for  the  changes 
you  make : 

1.  I  always  bore  an  inward  grudge  against  him  on  this  account 
which  it  was  difficult  to  suppress. 

2.  Apples  were  strung  in  the  doorways  which  we  tried  to  bite 
without  touching. 

3.  A  man  who  is  under  no  restraint  will  often  do  something 
on  the  spur  of  the  moment  which  is  discreditable  to  him. 

4.  I  had  to  stay  in  the  office  till  ten  o'clock,  for  I  had 
wasted  the  time  during  the  day  that  should  have  been  devoted 
to  work. 

5.  As  a  beginner,  the  work  was  hard  for  me. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES       121 

6.  We  told  him  when  we  employed  him  we  would  pay  him 
$25.00  a  week. 

7.  We  only  have  five  men  on  the  road,  and  need  no  more. 

8.  His  team  was  the  most  skillful  we  almost  ever  had. 

9.  We  only  need  two  more  days  in  which  to  complete  your  order. 

10.  He  asked  us  to  accurately  copy  his  entire  record! 

11.  There  is  no  doubt,  certainly,  that  we  shall  be  able  to  com- 
pletely fill  your  order. 

12.  Doe's  Restaurant  is  the  best  place  in  the  city  on  Randolph 
Street. 

13.  All  Saints'  Eve  is  one  of  the  merriest  times  of  the  year  for 
boys  and  girls  that  one  can  imagine. 

14.  One  night  last  summer  I  was  to  take  a  girl  friend  that  I  had 
not  seen  for  almost  a  year  out  to  dinner. 

15.  The  telephone  in  the  hands  of  people  who  only  use  it  to 
carry  on  long-winded  conversations  with  you  is  a  nuisance. 

16.  Not  only  does  this  fact  concern  the  college  student  but  also 
men  in  every  sort  of  occupation. 

17.  All  boys  who  committed  crimes  were  either  tried  before  a 
Municipal  Judg^e  or  Criminal  Judge. 

18.  An  old  man,  wearing  a  matted  gray  beard,  was  reclining 
against  a  bank  of  moss  on  the  north  side  of  a  great  tree,  smoking  an 
old,  red-clay  pipe. 

19.  We  came  to  the  realization  that  a  tropical  storm  was  upon 
us  in  its  first  stages. 

20.  At  chapel  his  cheerful  look  gives  a  pleasant  atmosphere  to 
the  student-body,  which  does  not  seem  to  be  present  when  he  is 
not  addressing  the  audience. 

21.  I  am  feeling  much  better  and  I  hope  to  soon  be  in  my  usual 
good  health. 

22.  He  must  at  least  inspect  his  company  once  a  week. 

B.   Ambiguous  Pronouns. 
186.     The  following  sentence  illustrates  a  second  sort  of 
incoherence : 

"When  our  representative  inspected  the  engine  with  Mr.  Jones, 
he  said  that  it  was  in  good  condition." 

What  does  it  mean?     Probably  that  the  representative  said 
the  engine  was  in  good  condition;  but  the  italicized  he  might 


122  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

refer  to  Mr.  Jones.  All  pronouns  should  refer  unmistakably 
to  their  real  antecedents.  In  the  case  of  this  sentence,  it 
would  have  been  just  as  easy,  and  much  clearer,  to  write: 

Our  representative,  after  inspecting  the  engine  with  Mr.  Jones, 
said  that  it  was  in  good  condition. 

187.  In  general,  the  antecedent  of  every  personal  and 
relative  pronoun  should  be  a  definitely  expressed  substantive, 
not  merely  an  idea  stated  or  implied  in  what  has  been  written. 

(1)  He  went  to  the  service  station  for  this  tire,  but  they  did  not 
have  it. 

Here  the  personal  pronoun  they  refers,  so  far  as  the  logic  of  the 
sentence  is  concerned,  to  the  salesmen  at  the  service  station; 
but  if  one  tries  to  parse  it  as  the  sentence  stands,  the  word 
refers  (ungrammatically)  to  station.  Had  the  writer  said, 
"He  went  to  the  service  station  for  this  tire,  but  was  unable 
to  obtain  it, "  he  would  have  avoided  the  blunder. 

(2)  You  ask  that  you  be  allowed  to  postpone  payment  for  two 
months,  which  we  regret  we  cannot  grant. 

Here  the  relative  pronoun  which  is  without  a  definite  gram- 
matical antecedent;  it  actually  refers  to  the  whole  idea 
expressed  in  the  first  clause.  This  sentence  should  have 
been:  "You  ask  for  a  postponement  of  two  months;  this  we 
regret  we  cannot  grant." 

188.  A  common  but  utterly  ungrammatical  misuse  of  a 
pronoun  results  in  sentences  like  these: 

Every  person  must  have  recreation,  and  if  they  do  not  get  it  their 
work  suffers. 

The  House  of  Representatives  has  certain  rules  which  they  are 
compelled  to  abide  by. 

Here  the  trouble  is  that  plural  forms,  they,  their,  have  been 
carelessly  used  to  refer  to  singular  antecedents.  The  result- 
ing incoherence  is  obvious. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      123 

EXERCISE  7. 

Improve  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons  for  whatever 
changes  you  make: 

1.  In  the  country  there  are  comparatively  few  people,  which 
allows  each  inhabitant  to  know  his  next  door  neighbor  well. 

2.  The  bank  examiner  felt  that  the  cashier  was  not  so  much 
interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  bank  as  he  should  be  since  he  had 
not  been  able  to  talk  the  matter  over  with  him. 

3.  If  a  person  has  decided  to  go  to ,  during  the  foUowmg 

vacation  he  should  write  to  the  University  for  an  admission  blank. 
This  should  not  be  delayed  too  long. 

4.  I  am  familiar  with  the  engines  of  a  number  of  cars  and  know 
their  good  and  bad  points. 

5.  Her  mother  told  me  that  when  she  was  fifteen  years  old  she 
had  graduated  from  high  school. 

6.  If  any  announcements  are  to  be  made,  the  President  is  the 
one  who  does  it. 

7.  Although  the  guards  are  looked  upon  by  some  as  being 
less  important  than  the  other  members  of  the  team,  it  is  utterly 

wrong. 

8.  If  any  student  has  a  grievance,  they  will  find  the  Principal 

always  ready  to  hsten  to  them. 

9.  Since  the  fly  is  an  enemy  of  life,  we  must  seek  to  destroy  as 
many  of  them  as  we  can. 

10.  You  are  sure  to  steer  straight  into  somebody's  back,  or  to 

step  on  their  toes.  o,    .  ,    ,     ,  j 

11.  While  the  manager  was  talkmg  with  Mr.  Smith,  he  learned 
of  our  previous  action. 

12.  The  jury  is  selected  by  the  school  for  the  purpose  of  repre- 
senting them  in  all  cases  brought  before  them. 

13.  Several  of  the  other  towns  near  Wahiut  challenged  us  to 
games.    We  accepted  most  of  them. 

14.  In  Indiana,  towns  of  over  three  thousand  inhabitants  must 
provide  night  schools  if  over  twenty  people  petition  for  it  who 
have  children  between  fourteen  and  twenty-one  employed  during 

the  day.  ,  ^    ,.  ,      i  •  i.  t 

15.  When  I  look  back  on  the  four  years  of  Enghsh  which  I 
studied  in  high  school,  it  immediately  divides  itself  into  two 
divisions. 


124  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

C.   Ungrammatical  Modifiers. 

189.  As  important  as  attention  to  pronouns  is  care  in  the 
use  of  participles  and  other  phrasal  modifiers.  Here  the 
problem  is  at  bottom  one  of  clear  reference;  it  is  essential  that 
such  elements  be  attached  grammatically  to  the  words  they 
modify. 

190.  The  construction  which  requires  the  greatest  care  is 
the  participial  phrase.  Unless  one  bears  in  mind  that  the 
participle  is  at  once  an  adjective  and  a  verb,  and  that  the 
sentence  should  be  so  constructed  that  the  noun  or  pronoun 
which  the  participle  modifies  is  the  subject  of  the  action 
which  it  expresses,  it  is  easy  to  write  such  ungrammatical 
sentences  as  the  following: 

(1)  Checking  up  the  order  received  from  you  yesterday,  it  is 
apparent  that  you  have  erred  in  citing  the  numbers  of  the  items 
from  our  catalogue. 

In  this  case  the  participle  checking  modifies  the  subject  of 
the  principal  verb,  and  this  subject  is  the  pronoun  it.  But 
the  writer  meant  that  he  checked  the  order,  or  that  some 
other  person  checked  it;  he  should  have  so  phrased  the 
sentence  that  checking  would  be  attached  to  its  logical  sub- 
ject, as  thus:  "Checking  up  the  order  received  from  you 
yesterday,  I  find  etc.''  A  participle  standing  at  the  beginning 
of  the  sentence  modifies  the  grammatical  subject  of  the  sentence, 
and  therefore  this  grammatical  subject  should  be  the  same  as 
the  implied  or  logical  subject  of  the  participle. 

(2)  Caused  by  the  action  of  the  War  Industries  Board,  our  stock 
of  machines  is  low. 

The  only  difference  between  this  case  and  the  preceding  is 
that  here  there  is  a  past  participle  instead  of  a  present. 

(3)  Starting  for  my  monthly  trip  to  St.  Paul,  the  influenza 
quarantine  made  it  impossible  for  me  to  leave  town. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES       125 

Here  the  inconsistency  between  the  explicit  grammatical 
relationship  of  the  participle  and  the  implied  meaning  of  the 
sentence  is  so  gross  as  to  be  obvious.^ 

191.  Another  construction  which  calls  for  careful  han- 
dling is  the  phrase  introduced  by  due  to.  Due  is  always  an 
adjective,  and  must  be  used  so  that  it  modifies  a  substantive 
actually  in  the  sentence.  Forgetfulness  of  this  fact  is  likely 
to  result  in  such  sentences  as  the  following: 

Due  to  strikes,  our  factories  have  been  forced  to  close  down 
temporarily. 

Here  the  adjective  due  is  without  proper  relation  to  the  rest 
of  the  sentence;  for  if  we  parse  it  as  modifying /actones,  the 
sense  of  the  sentence  is  spoiled.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
phrase  is  used  in  this  sentence  with  an  adverbial  meaning, 
that  is  to  say,  as  a  modifier  of  the  verb  have  been  forced  to 
close. 

192.  Usage,  however,  does  not  sanction  this  wrenching 
of  the  construction  from  its  proper  grammatical  function; 
due  is  used  correctly  only  when  it  is  used  as  an  adjective. 
In  this  particular  sentence,  and  in  perhaps  a  majority  of  the 
cases  in  which  the  temptation  to  use  a  due  to  phrase  arises,  it 
is  better  to  have  recourse  to  an  unmistakable  adverbial 
construction,  such  as  owing  to  or  on  account  of.  Either  of 
these  phrases  would  make  the  present  sentence  coherent. 
(See  above,  paragraph  107.) 

193.  All  this  about  due  to  phrases  applies  with  equal 
force  to  certain  other  constructions.  For  example,  in  the 
sentence,  "As  director  and  manager  of  the  corporation, 
much  of  the  responsibility  was  placed  at  his  door,"  the 
phrase  ''as  director  and  manager  of  the  corporation"  is 
without  proper  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence.     Gram- 

*  For  a  treatment  of  the  similar  difficulty  involved  in  the  "dangling" 
gerund,  see  above,  paragraph  104. 


126  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

matically,  it  is  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  much;  but 
logically  it  refers  not  to  much  but  to  his.  The  writer  should 
have  so  revised  the  sentence  as  to  make  the  grammatical 
and  logical  relations  of  the  phrase  coincide;  as  for  example, 
''As  director  and  manager  of  the  corporation,  he  had  to  bear 
the  blame  for  the  failure." 

EXERCISE  8. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons  for  the  changes 
you  make: 

1.  Looking  over  our  records  for  the  past  year,  it  is  evident 
that  your  account  has  not  been  active. 

2.  Our  prices  are  dropping  steadily,  caused  by  a  general  reduc- 
tion of  costs. 

3.  Due  to  the  inefficiency  of  certain  workmen,  we  are  unable 
to  increase  our  monthly  output. 

4.  As  originator  of  the  co-operative  scheme,  the  credit  for  our 
happy  year  was  largely  his. 

5.  After  perusing  the  catalogue  the  next  logical  step  would  be 
to  write  for  an  application  blank. 

6.  The  average  sale  is  usually  large  due  to  the  nature  of  our 
business. 

7.  I  came  early  next  day,  and  my  patience  was  rewarded  after 
having  waited  two  hours. 

8.  Having  found  that  discussions  alone  were  not  sufficient  to 
keep  the  girls  alert,  another  interest  was  introduced. 

9.  Every  year  thousands  of  dollars  are  lost  in  crops,  due  to  this 
destructive  bird. 

10.  After  walking  around  in  the  stubble  for  a  while,  the  gun 
began  to  feel  heavy,  and  I  did  not  care  whether  I  saw  any  rabbits 
or  not. 

11.  The  city  of  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  has  four  large  markets 
called  the  East,  West,  North,  and  South,  due  to  their  situations. 

12.  Starting  at  once  to  work,  the  lawn  was  soon  mowed  and  he 
then  raked  it  carefully. 

13.  Living  on  the  lake  shore  almost  all  of  my  life,  it  was  natural 
that  I  should  take  to  swimming  earlier  than  children  living  inland. 

14.  Having  become  a  scout  the  good  a  boy  derives  is  almost 
limitless. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES       127 

15.  Real  music  seemed  to  come  from  these  unusual  instruments, 
due,  of  course,  to  a  real  orchestra  behind  the  scenes. 

16.  Unlike  the  treatment  meted  out  to  Cuba,  Porto  Ricans 
were  given  many  liberties. 

D.   Parallel  Structure. 

194.  Fourth  and  last,  it  will  help  any  writer  to  secure 
coherence  in  his  work  if  he  will  take  care  that  ideas  which  have 
the  same  function  in  the  sentence  are  similarly  expressed.  No 
doubt  this  device  of  ''parallel  structure"  is  of  more  impor- 
tance to  the  artist  than  to  the  business  writer;  but  a  few 
illustrations  of  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  used  to  increase 
the  coherence — and  hence  the  effectiveness — of  a  sentence, 
will  show  that  even  the  business  man  will  find  it  helpful. 

(1)  We  have  learned  of  your  excellent  work,  and  that  you  have 
sold  more  goods  than  any  other  man  in  this  field. 

In  this  case  the  two  ideas  following  the  verb  have  learned 
have  precisely  the  same  function  in  the  sentence:  their  equal 
rank  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  they  are  joined  by  the 
coordinating  conjunction  and.  Yet  the  writer  of  the  sen- 
tence obscured  this  parallelism  of  thought  by  giving  to  the 
two  object-ideas  dissimilar  grammatical  constructions;  the 
one  he  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  phrase  {of  your  diligent 
work),  the  other  in  the  form  of  a  clause  {that  you  have  sold, 
etc.).  A  skillful  writer  would  have  given  the  same  construc- 
tion to  both,  as  in  the  following: 

We  have  learned  of  your  diligent  work  and  of  your  success  in 
selling  more  goods  than  any  other  man  in  this  field. 

(2)  You  have  been  encouraged  to  buy  your  supplies  of  your 
dealer,  and  in  expecting  him  to  render  the  best  service  possible. 

The  trouble  here  is  of  the  same  sort:  the  first  object  of  the 
verb  have  been  encouraged  is  an  infinitive  phrase,  to  buy;  the 
second  is  a  gerund  phrase,  in  expecting. 


128  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

(3)  The  new  tire,  the  best  we  have  ever  made,  and  which  has 
aheady  been  generally  adopted  for  cars  of  the  better  sort,  is  now 
ready  for  distribution  in  your  territory. 

The  writer  of  this  sentence  wished  to  describe  his  new  tire  in 
two  ways:  by  saying  that  it  was  the  best  his  firm  had  ever 
made,  and  that  it  had  already  been  generally  adopted.  For 
the  first  qualifying  idea  he  used  a  phrase  in  apposition  with 
tire — the  best  [tire]  we  have  ever  made — and  for  the  second  a 
relative  clause — which  has  already,  etc.  He  thus  obscured 
the  real  relationship  of  the  two  ideas.  He  should  have 
written  something  like  this: 

The  new  tire,  which  is  the  best  we  have  ever  made,  and  which 
lias,  etc. 

In  general,  it  is  a  safe  rule  not  to  use  the  and  which  or  and 
who  form  unless  a  which  or  who  has  already  appeared  in  the 
sentence. 

(4)  You  and  Mr.  Smith  drew  up  this  agreement  together,  and 
it  was  approved  by  both  of  you. 

The  trouble  here  arises  from  shifting,  in  the  middle  of  the 
sentence,  from  the  active  to  the  passive  voice.  The  two 
clauses  are  coordinate;  the  same  voice  should  be  used  in 
I)oth: 

You  and  Mr.  Smith  drew  up  this  agreement  together,  and  both 
,  of  you  approved  it. 

195.  Somewhat  akin  to  the  incoherence  resulting  from 
failure  to  make  use  of  parallel  structure,  is  that  which  appears 
in  sentences  like  these : 

The  coast-guard  service  of  the  United  States  is  as  good,  or  better 
than,  that  of  any  other  country. 

There  are  as  many  if  not  more  words  derived  from  French  than 
from  Latin. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      129 

This  sort  of  "split  comparison"  is  always  awkward,  and 
nearly  always  avoidable.  The  preceding  sentences  would 
be  correct  if  written  thus: 

The  coast-guard  service  of  the  United  States  is  as  good  as,  or 
heiter»than,  that  of  any  other  country. 

There  are  as  many  words  derived  from  French  as  from  Latin, 
if  not  more. 

But  in  both  cases  it  would  have  been  better  to  recast  the 
sentences,  and  to  avoid  the  double  comparison  entirely. 

EXERCISE  9. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons  for  the  changes 
you  make: 

1.  We  started  the  jobs  together,  and  they  were  finished  at  the 
same  time. 

2.  We  think  that  this  territory  is  the  best  you  could  take,  and 
offering  unusual  opportunities. 

3.  When  he  began  trading  with  us  he  found  that  we  always  lived 
up  to  our  agreements,  often  doing  even  more  than  we  had  promised. 

4.  He  wrote  a  long  report  on  conditions  in  Texas,  and  which 
the  Directors  ordered  printed. 

5.  This  machine,  our  latest  model,  and  that  we  guarantee 
absolutely,  will  save  money  for  you  in  many  ways. 

6.  We  bought  the  machine  together,  and  it  was  paid  for  by 
November  21. 

7.  Each  room  had  a  different  temperature,  some  so  cold  that 
one  nearly  froze,  and  the  next  room  would  be  too  warm. 

8.  Many  more  practical  subjects,  such  as  logic,  psychology,  and 
even  Latin  and  Greek,  are  as  good  or  even  better  mind-developers 
than  m-athematics. 

9.  Another  popular  way  of  attracting  ducks  and  to  get  them  ta 
sit  and  swim  near  your  canoe  is  by  floating  a  number  of  decoys. 

10.  Everyone  knows  that  he  would  much  rather  be  waited  upon 
by  a  salesman  with  a  smile  upon  his  face  and  who  has  a  pleasant 
word  for  everyone  than  one  who  is  scowling  and  unpleasant. 

11  I  had  the  privilege  of  selling  the  surplus  honey,  and  to  keep 
what  I  made  for  my  own  use. 


130  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

12.  To  receive  the  highest  rank  in  Camp  Fire  a  girl  must  be  a 
guide  in  some  organization  or  it  must  be  won  as  a  Craftsman. 

13.  The  third  crop  of  alfalfa  hay  is  just  as  good  and  sometimes 
richer  in  protein  than  the  first  crop. 

14.  Why  should  we  let  the  prizes  go  to  other  people  when  we 
could  do  just  as  well  if  not  better  than  they? 

15.  Pictured  stories  always  make  a  deeper  impression  than  tell- 
ing them. 

16.  With  the  help  of  this  system  the  chemist  can  determine  be- 
forehand just  what  substances  will  be  formed  and  also  their  com- 
position. 

17.  After  much  waste  of  printing  paper  and  chemicals,  and 
receiving  no  satisfaction  from  "The  Science  of  Photography,"  we 
went  to  Lucille's  father  for  advice. 

18.  By  mixing  with  people  you  develop  yourself  and  your  ideas 
are  broader  because  of  the  views  of  others. 

19.  These  students  retain  a  great  interest  in  their  university 
and  aid  it  by  speaking  well  of  it,  and  financially. 

EXERCISE  10. 

1.  Read  an  essay  by  Macaulay,  Stevenson,  or  Chesterton,  and 
copy  into  your  notebook  at  least  twenty  sentences  involving  effective 
applications  of  the  principle  of  parallel  structure. 

2.  From  a  current  newspaper  or  magazine  or  from  the  themes 
which  you  have  written  earher  in  the  course  select  at  least  fifteen 
sentences  which  could  be  improved  from  the  point  of  view  of 
parallelism,  and  bring  them  to  class  with  suggestions  for  revision. 

196.  In  conclusion,  it  should  be  clear  that  Coherence  in  a 
sentence  is  as  important  as  Unity.  No  matter  how  straight 
a  person  thinks,  unless  his  sentences  are  as  clear  and  well- 
ordered  as  his  thoughts,  his  reader  will  miss  something. 


III.    Emphasis. 

197.  It  is  a  dictate  of  mere  common  sense  to  say  what 
one  has  to  say  as  forcibly  as  is  desirable.  Vigor,  emphasis, 
are  necessary  in  any  piece  of  writing  if  it  is  to  fulfill  its  mission 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      131 

of  lodging  the  author's  ideas  in  the  mind  of  the  reader. 
These  qualities,  it  is  true,  are  dependent  to  a  considerable 
extent  upon  similar  traits  in  the  personaUty  of  the  writer 
himself.  Nevertheless,  within  limits,  they  can  be  procured 
by  a  careful  use  of  a  few  relatively  simple  rhetorical 
devices. 

198.  First  of  all,  the  most  important  ideas  in  a  sentence 
should  he  given  the  most  important  positions.  What  are  impor- 
tant positions?  The  beginning  and  the  end,  particularly  the 
end.  In  the  following  sentences  a  shift  of  the  chief  idea  to  a 
more  important  position  throws  it  into  stronger  relief: 

(1)  Unemphatic:  To  serve  you  cheerfully  and  well  is  our  pur- 
pope,  even  though  your  orders  are  so  small  that  you  might  expect 
them  to  receive  only  perfunctory  attention. 

Emphatic:  Even  though  your  orders  are  so  small  that  you 
might  expect  them  to  receive  only  perfunctory  attention,  it  is  our 
purpose  to  serve  you  cheerfully  and  well. 

(2)  Unemphatic:  Our  many  years  of  experience  make  us  sure 
that  you  will  like  this  paint,  although  you  have  never  used  it  before. 

Emphatic:  Our  many  years  of  experience  make  us  sure  that, 
although  you  have  never  used  this  paint  before,  you  will  like  it. 

(3)  Unemphatic:  Our  filing  system  is  easy  to  install,  it  costs 
little,  it  will  increase  your  profits,  your  clerks  will  like  it,  and  it  will 
expand  automatically  with  your  business. 

Emphatic:  Our  fiUng  system  is  easy  to  install,  it  will  expand 
automatically  with  your  business,  your  clerks  will  like  it,  it  costs 
little,  and  it  will  increase  your  profits. 

The  last  sentence  illustrates  the  advantage  of  arranging 
ideas  in  the  order  of  cUmax,  the  most  important  at  the  end  of 
the  sentence. 

199.  In  the  second  place,  as  we  have  pointed  out  in 
Chapter  IV,  nothing  helps  more  to  give  force  to  one's  state- 
ments than  the  use  oi  fresh,  appropriate,  vivid  words. 


132  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

200.  As  a  general  rule,  one  should  use  the  active  instead 
of  the  passive  voice.  The  passive  voice,  in  all  statements 
in  which  without  falsifying  the  meaning  the  writer  might 
have  used  the  active,  is  a  weak  construction.  How  much 
more  direct  and  vivid,  for  example,  is  the  second  sentence 
in  each  of  the  following  pairs  than  the  first: 

(1)  Passive:  You  are  requested  to  send  an  application  for  credit 
to  Mr.  Jones,  who  will  see  that  it  is  properly  taken  care  of. 

Active:    Please  send  your  application  for  credit  to  Mr.  Jones, 
who  will  care  for  it  properly. 

(2)  Passive:  Your  attention  is  invited  to  our  new  catalogue, 
which  mil  be  mailed  to  you  today. 

Active:    Today  we  mail  you  our  new  catalogue.    You  will 
find  it  worth  your  attention. 

201.  Again,  brevity,  condensation,  usually  makes  for 
emphasis.  Unnecessary  clauses  (particularly  the  introduc- 
tory There  ts),  prepositional  phrases,  and  useless  adjectives 
weaken  one^s  writing.  Too  much  is  usually  worse  than  too 
little;  Herbert  Spencer  called  "Economy"  the  most  important 
principle  of  rhetoric.^  -^ 

202.  In  the  third  place,  one  can  sometimes  repeat  a  word 
or  phrase  which  one  wishes  to  stress.  The  mere  fact  that  it 
occurs  twice,  three  times,  impresses  it  upon  the  reader's 
mind.  The  superiority  of  the  second  of  the  following  sen- 
tences is  due  to  the  repetition  of  the  verb  will  increase: 

The  use  of  our  service  will  increase  the  length  of  your  truck's  life, 
the  amount  of  business  you  can  do,  and  your  profits. 

The  use  of  our  service  will  increase  the  length  of  your  truck's  life, 
it  mil  increase  the  amount  of  business  you  can  do,  and  it  will  increase 
your  profits. 

1  In  his  Philosophy  of  Style,  an  essay  which  any  student  interested  in 
the  theory  underlying  these  practical  suggestions  will  do  well  to  read. 
It  is  accessible  in  many  reprints,  j 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      133 

203.  Repetition  is  not  always  effective;  when  it  is  un- 
designed it  is  extremely  ineffective.  The  unnecessary  and 
jingling  repetition  of  plan,  build,  and  home  in  the  following 
sentence  will  illustrate  this  fact : 

If  you  are  planning  to  build  sl  home,  you  should  plan  a  building 
which  will  be  neither  homely  nor  too  ornate,  but  all  that  a  home 
should  be. 

EXERCISE  11. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons  for  the  changes 
you  make: 

1.  When  we  wrote  Mr.  Brown  we  said  we  would  buy  the  house, 
although  we  were  not  entirely  satisfied  with  it. 

2.  You  are  requested  to  have  the  enclosed  circular  posted  where 
it  can  be  read  by  all  your  employees. 

3.  In  reply  to  your  letter  of  the  21st  we  beg  to  state  that  on 
examination  of  our  files  we  find  no  such  order  as  is  referred  to  in 
your  communication. 

4.  It  is  suggested  that  the  matter  of  closing  at  noon  on  Wednes- 
days during  July  and  Augu^  be  taken  up  with  all  department 
managers  and  assistant  managers. 

5.  Our  checks  and  letters-of-credit  may  be  cashed  at  all  banks 
in  the  civiHzed  world,  and  at  many  hotels,  too. 

6.  A  statement  which  we  can  rely  upon  was  made  by  Professor 
Jones  one  day  with  reference  to  the  old  custom  of  refraining  from 
smoking  while  one  is  on  the  campus. 

7.  All  of  our  students  dance.  Some,  it  is  true,  merely  think 
they  dance,  but  there  isn't  one  student  who  will  not  get  up  and 
dance.  Look  at  any  of  the  dances  at  the  local  clubs  or  hotels. 
Parleys  with  our  Deans  as  to  this  or  that  dance,  and  whether  or 
not  it  is  permissible,  also  prove  that  the  students  of  this  University 
are  vitally  interested  in  the  subject  of  dancing. 

8.  OriginaUty  in  construction  is  encouraged  by  the  teacher  and 
the  student  is  given  the  opportunity  to  offer  new  ideas  if  any  occur 
to  him,  which  is  frequently  the  case. 

9.  There  is  another  question  which  ought  to  be  considered  by  us 
— ^the  question  as  to  whether  we  should  open  a  branch  station  at 
Troy  or  not. 


134  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

10.  When  we  arrived  on  the  scene  of  action,  only  one  man  was 
found  there,  and  he  was  the  foreman. 

11.  It  is  a  fact  that  Music  students  show  very  Uttle  interest  in 
the  regular  campus  activities.  A  university  athletic  meet  barely 
meets  with  a  comment  from  them,  and  little  support  is  received 
from  them  for  the  dramatic  productions  given. 

EXERCISE  12. 

Do  you  think  that  Matthew  Arnold's  use  of  repetition  in  the 
following  paragraph  lends  emphasis  to  his  ideas?  If  so,  how  does 
it  differ  from  the  ineffective  repetition  illustrated  in  paragraph  203? 

"Nothing  is  more  common  than  for  people  to  confound  the  inward 
peace  and  satisfaction  which  follows  the  subduing  of  the  obvious 
faults  of  our  animality  with  what  I  may  call  absolute  inward  peace 
and  satisfaction, — the  peace  and  satisfaction  which  are  reached 
as  we  draw  near  to  complete  spiritual  perfection,  and  not  merely 
to  moral  perfection,  or  rather  to  relative  moral  perfection.  No 
people  in  the  world  have  done  more  and  struggled  more  to  attain 
this  relative  moral  perfection  than  our  English  race  has.  For  no 
people  in  the  world  has  the  command  to  resist  the  devil,  to  overcome 
the  wicked  one  in  the  nearest  and  most  obvious  sense  of  those  words, 
had  such  a  pressing  force  and  reality.  And  we  have  had  our  reward, 
not  only  in  the  great  worldly  prosperity  which  our  obedience  to  this 
command  has  brought  us,  but  also,  and  far  more,  in  great  inward 
peace  and  satisfaction.  But  to  me  few  things  are  more  pathetic 
than  to  see  people,  on  the  strength  of  the  inward  peace  and  satis- 
faction which  their  rudimentary  efforts  toward  perfection  have 
brought  them,  employ,  concerning  their  incomplete  perfection  and 
the  religious  organisations  within  which  they  have  found  it,  lan- 
guage which  properly  applies  only  to  complete  perfection,  and  is  a 
far-off  echo  of  the  human  soul's  prophecy  of  it." 

204.  To  sum  up  the  gist  of  this  chapter,  we  might  say 
that  the  guiding  principles  of  sentence  structure  are  these: 
One  sentence,  one  main  idea;  each  word  or  phrase  where  it 
will  most  clearly  bring  out  that  idea;  and  the  most  im- 
portant phase  of  the  main  idea  in  the  most  important 
position. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      135 

205.  Throughout  the  preceding  discussion  we  have 
assumed  that  the  principles  set  forth  apply  equally  to  all 
forms  of  writing.  But  it  is  a  fair  question  for  the  student 
to  ask  whether  or  not  these  principles  may  be  somewhat 
modified  in  business  writing?  Is  there  not  a  special  tech- 
nique applicable  to  the  business  letter,  a  technique  which 
places  little  emphasis  upon  the  rules  explained  in  this 
chapter? 

206.  The  general  answer  to  such  a  question  must  be 
negative.  Although  the  successful  correspondent  may 
think  that  the  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis  of  the  class- 
room mean  but  little  to  him,  the  chances  are  overwhebning 
that  when  he  writes  well  he  writes  so  that  his  letters  exem- 
plify all  three  of  these  principles.  It  may  well  be,  of  course, 
that  composing  as  he  usually  does  in  relatively  brief  units, 
he  uses  shorter,  terser  sentences  than  would  be  appropriate 
in  a  long  essay.  Nor  need  he,  as  a  rule,  fear  informality 
or  even  occasional  colloquialisms,  provided  they  are  well 
adapted  to  the  subject  and  the  reader.  But  these  are  only 
apparent  exceptions  to  the  rule,  and  the  liberties  involved, 
if  indeed  they  can  be  called  liberties  at  all,  are  in  no  way 
peculiar  to  business  writing,  but  appear  quite  as  frequently 
in  all  of  the  less  formal  varieties  of  literary  composition.  In 
short,  for  the  writer  of  business  letters  as  for  the  historian 
or  novelist,  the  canons  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis 
remain  as  essential  guides  in  all  his  work.  And  the  reason 
is  perfectly  plain.  The  mind  of  the  business  man  is  not  in 
any  fundamental  different  from  that  of,  say,  the  lawyer  or 
the  essayist;  it  can  be  appealed  to  most  easily  by  writing 
which  makes  one  point  at  a  time,  which  avoids  the  various 
pitfalls  of  mixed-up  sentences,  and  which  places  the  stress 
where  it  properly  belongs. 


136  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

EXERCISE  13. 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons  for  the  changes 
you  make: 

1.  Floyd  had  a  shop  fully  equipped  after  his  own  ideas,  into 
which  once  in  a  while  he  let  me  gaze  for  the  barest  instant. 

2.  High  school  opened  on  the  eighth  of  September  and  a  meet- 
ing was  called  for  the  following  day  of  all  candidates  for  the  football 
team. 

3.  When  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades,  the  mention  of  college 
was  to  me  as  pleasant  as  the  suggestion  of  castor  oil. 

4.  Years  ago  this  country  was  covered  by  a  lake,  making  the 
soil  rich  and  productive. 

5.  The  ground  is  covered  with  leaves  which  rustle  when  one 
walks  through  them,  and  when  the  wind  blows  they  scatter  over 
the  campus. 

6.  I  yearned  for  something  to  keep  me  busy  and  from  which 
I  might  also  derive  some  pleasure. 

7.  These  extra  meals  no  one  really  needed,  but  being  one  of  the 
unwritten  laws  of  the  boat,  everyone  was  on  hand  for  all. 

8.  While  the  worker  struggles  for  unionism  he  allows  his  leader 
to  become  a  king  not  only  among  the  workers  but  he  will  manipu- 
late matters  to  suit  himself. 

9.  Buildings  that  were  nearly  finished  when  the  war  broke  out 
are  no  nearer  completion  than  they  were  at  that  time,  due  to  lack 
of  funds. 

10.  Father  came  in  to  tell  us  that  the  rain  had  stopped  and  for 
all  of  us  to  get  up  at  once. 

11.  If  hard  work  will  do  it,  there  is  no  reason  why  a  girl  who 
has  the  opportunities  offered  by  a  college  education  should  fail,  if 
she  prepares  herself  for  the  proper  work. 

12.  While  still  at  breakfast  the  telephone  bell  rang,  and  the 
call  proved  to  be  for  me. 

13.  As  a  beginner,  history  was  a  bore  to  me,  and  I  did  not  get 
along  very  well  the  first  year. 

14.  Having  laid  the  fire  the  night  before,  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  touch  a  match  to  the  kindling. 

15.  I  went  over  to  chapel  at  ten  o'clock  to  make  up  my  chapel 
credits,  as  I  can  only  go  to  chapel  three  times  a  week. 

16.  A  better  picture  will  often  be  produced  by  thinking  about  the 
subject  a  length  of  time  before  beginning. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES      137 

17.  I  thought  he  was  the  most  beautiful  fish  I  had  ever  seen,  and 
I  stood  on  the  bank  at  the  water's  edge  when  he  gave  one  flop  and 
slipped  into  the  water. 

18.  Some  of  the  Canadian  woods  have  the  traces  of  the  trail  of 
the  red  men  left,  and  as  a  child  in  Ontario,  Hiawatha  and  other 
Indian  legends  invested  the  woods  with  life,  and  perhaps  a  Uttle 
fear  for  me. 

19.  Perhaps  I  can  explain  more  fully  the  duties  of  an  auditor 
by  relating  the  duties  of  an  auditor  of  a  company  in  our  city  and 
to  whom  I  was  an  assistant. 

20.  The  next  morning  everybody  tied  their  beds  on  their  pack- 
horses  and  started  for  home. 

21.  After  studying  the  outline  of  the  hill  against  the  sky,  the 
profile  of  an  elephant's  back  was  easily  seen. 

22.  In  high  school  we  were  kept  in  study  rooms  where  we  were 
made  to  at  least  pretend  to  study. 

23.  So  I  went  to  the  head-master  of  the  school  and  he  asked  me 
what  course  I  intended  taking  up  and  after  I  told  him  a  commerce 
course,  he  said  that,  as  it  would  be  best  to  go  to  a  mid-western 
school,  the  best  mid-western  school  was  at . 

24.  He  had  only  gone  there  a  few  times  when  he  found  out  his 
error. 

25.  We  had  driven  about  forty-five  miles  out  of  Pontiac  when 
suddenly  we  heard  a  crunching  sound. 

26.  While  at  the  breakfast  table  the  next  morning  his  eye  lit  on  a 
tea-set  which  greatly  interested  him. 

27.  Not  only  must  we  consider  the  methods  of  securing  news 
but  also  the  putting  of  such  news  into  proper  form  for  publi- 
cation. 

28.  There  are  many  other  tricks  to  be  learned,  but  which  can 
only  be  learned  after  experience  in  the  game. 

29.  The  House  of  Representatives  has  certain  rules  which  they 
are  compelled  to  abide  by. 

30.  The  building  took  weeks  as  the  boy  could  only  work  on  it 
after  his  day's  work  was  done  and  following  the  long  walk  to  the 
neighbor's. 

31.  Has  anybody  here  lost  their  pocketbook? 

32.  Alongside  the  track  is  the  judges'  stand,  and  this  is  always 
crowded  in  the  afternoon  when  a  race  is  in  progress. 

33.  It  was  then  necessary  for  me  to  take  some  definite  action. 
After  talking  it  over  with  the  other  delegates  and  telling  them  what 


138  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

I  had  resolved,  we  decided  that  the  best  way  to  bring  about  the 
desired  results  was^o  organize  a  Battte  Ground  Club. 

34.  Paper  has  doubled  in  price  since  the  war  began.  But  since 
we  do  not  feel  this  jump  in  price  so  much,  we  pay  little  attention  to 
it.  It  is  those  which  affect  our  daily  bread  and  comfort  that  touch 
us  most  closely,  as  is  only  natural. 

35.  We  do  not  give  credit  for  eating  or  sleeping.  Neither 
should  we  for  exercising.    The  same  principle  applies  to  all. 

36.  This  club  is  built  on  the  same  plan  as  the  driver,  moreover 
a  thin  brass  plate  is  screwed  to  the  bottom  of  the  head. 

37.  In  the  selection  of  a  cast,  comphcations  resulted,  as  there 
were  too  many  girls  who  wanted  leading  parts,  and  I  was  afraid  my 
enemies  would  increase  to  an  alarming  number  when  I  commenced 
sorting  them  over,  so  with  an  abundance  of  explanations,  I  finally 
had  the  number  thinned  out  and  got  the  girls  I  wanted  for  the  parts. 

38.  A  thin  cardboard  is  placed  on  the  type,  then  several  layers 
of  damp  cloth  are  laid  on  top  of  that. 

39.  We  were  nicely  seated  in  the  freight  car  and  were  con- 
gratulating ourselves  on  our  success  in  getting  a  ride  home.  Then 
a  head  appeared  through  the  car  door  and  we  were  asked  to  give  an 
account  of  ourselves. 

40.  This  twist  will  cause  the  ball  to  suddenly  settle  toward  the 
earth,  and  at  the  same  time  turning  to  the  left  of  the  home  plate. 

41.  Camp  was  left  behind  for  the  homeward  journey  after  the 
first  of  September,  making  just  two  months  in  camp  from  the  first  of 
July. 

42.  In  order  to  know  just  how  fit  a  surfman  is,  he  must  first  pass 
a  civil  service  examination. 

43.  Foreign  labor  is  much  cheaper  than  native  labor,  as  a  result 
of  this  foreign-made  goods  can  be  sold  in  this  country  more  cheaply 
than  American-made  goods. 

EXERCISE  14. 

Rewrite  the  following  paragraphs  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them 
consist  of  unified,  coherent,  and  properly  emphatic  sentences: 

1.  There  are  three  reasons  why  you  had  better  not  take  up  the 
newspaper  profession,  the  first  being  the  matter  of  health,  in  regard 
to  which  you  have  not  the  requisite  physical  strength  to  stand  the 
nervous  strain  and  the  hard  work,  and  in  the  second  place,  the 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES       139 

character  of  the  work  itself.  It  is  often  unpleasant,  if  not  actually 
repellent,  and  though  it  may  give  you  a  short  cut  to  a  general  knowl- 
edge of  life,  in  the  end  for  the  third  reason,  it  is  likely  to  place  a 
definite  limit  on  your  literary  achievement. 

2.  Swimming  is  not  so  easy  as  it  seems  when  you  are  standing 
beside  the  pool  watching  others.  But  in  the  water  you  go  through 
the  exercises  and  are  stiff  as  a  yardstick,  and  when  you  let  go  of  the 
pole  you  go  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  though  of  course  they  fish 
you  out  immediately.  And  in  many  cases  a  feeling  that  you 
must  struggle  to  keep  above  water  causes  your  sinking,  but  you 
cannot  seem  to  help  the  feeling  that  you  are  going  to  drown. 

3.  The  University  of offers  help  in  various  ways  to  students 

who  need  it,  and  they  do  not  feel  that  they  are  disgraced  because 
they  are  working  for  what  they  get.  Scholarships  are  awarded  to 
those  who  do  excellent  work  in  their  studies,  and  if  they  do  good 
work  but  not  quite  so  good,  they  can  get  a  service  scholarship.  It 
also  finds  outside  employme'nt  for  such  as  desire  it,  so  there  are 
plenty  of  ways  for  the  poor  student  who  cares  enough  for  an  educa- 
tion to  get  it. 

4.  My  brother  and  I  decided  one  summer  to  go  on  a  camping 
trip  through  the  Adirondacks,  and  everything  was  in  readiness.  We 
had  bought  the  necessary  outfit  and  mapped  out  our  route  for  a 
month  ahead.  The  route  was  to  take  us  through  the  whole  north 
woods,  but  my  brother  was  taken  suddenly  ill  and  our  trip  was 
completely  spoiled. 

5.  Will  you  kindly  inform  the  chairman  of  the  heat  and  ventilat- 
ing committee  that  the  conditions  in  the  classroom  can  be  im- 
proved, if  he  will  take  the  trouble  to  come  and  see  for  himself  that 
the  air  draught  is  out  of  order?  It  has  not  worked  well  ever  since 
it  was  installed,  and  it  can  be  fixed  without  much  expense  or  trouble, 
but  the  authorities  are  very  careless  in  regard  to  these  matters. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
PARAGRAPHS. 

207.  Here  is  a  typical  example  of  a  well-paragraphed 
business  letter: 

Dear  Mr.  Jones: 

Thank  you  for  your  letter  of  the  26th,  in  which  you  say 
that  the  car  has  proved  even  tetter  than  you  had  expected.   It  is 
always  a  pleasure  to  receive  such  comments  from  our  friends. 

We  are  sorry  that  a  "broken  "bottle  cut  the  new  tire. 
Very  prohahly  the  damage  can  he  repaired  at  your  own  service 
station;  if  it  cannot,  send  the  tire  to  us  and  we  will  attend  to 
it  at  once.   It  is  impossible  to  tell  in  advance  just  what  the 
cost  will  "be,  "but  it  should  not  exceed  ten  dollars. 

Should  you  wish  to  huy  a  new  tire  now,  our  advice  would 
he  the  -  -  -  -  cord.   Of  course  most  of  the  cord  tires  now  on 
the  market  would  give  you  good  service,  hut  we  have  made  up  our 
minds  that  the  -  -  -  -  is  the  hest  for  pleasure  cars  like  yours. 
Shall  we  send  you  one? 

Yours  very  truly, 
A.  B.  C.  Co.  . 

John  Doe,  Uanager. 

208.  In  this  letter  there  are  eight  sentences,  arranged  in 
three  paragraphs.  The  beginning  of  each  new  paragraph  is 
marked,  in  print,  by  the  indention  of  the  first  line;  in  typed 
letters  there  is  usually  a  similar  indention,  and  almost  al- 
ways an  extra  space.  This  indenting  and  spacing  have  only 
one  purpose:  to  arrest  the  eye  of  the  reader.  They  are  the 
external  indications  of  a  relatively  important  break  in  the 
thought. 

209.  In  general,  as  in  this  illustration,  a  paragraph  is  a 
unit  by  itself,  centering  round  and  developing  some  definite 
topic.    Thus,  paragraph  (1)  is  an  acknowledgment  of  the 

140 


PARAGRAPHS  141 

preceding  letter;  paragraph  (2)  takes  up  the  possibiHty  of 
repairing  a  cut  tire;  paragraph  (3)  gives  advice  about  new 
tires. 

210.  At  the  same  time  the  three  paragraphs  are  closely 
related  to  one  another,  and  taken  together,  form  a  complete 
whole,  a  letter. 

211.  To  understand  the  nature  and  function  of  the 
paragraph  as  a  unit  in  composition,  then,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  consider  it  in  two  ways :  first,  as  a  single  unit ;  and  second, 
as  one  link  in  a  chain.  The  present  chapter  Hmits  itself  to 
the  first  of  these  concerns. 

212.  Let  us  admit  at  the  outset  that  in  business  writing, 
especially  in  letters,  the  paragraphs  will  seldom  be  as  long 
or  as  complete  in  their  development  of  a  central  idea  as  the 
theory  set  forth  in  text-books  on  rhetoric  would  demand. 
The  business  writer  uses  short  paragraphs  because  his 
correspondent  can  read  them  easily,  and  can  grasp  their 
meaning  at  a  glance.  Nevertheless,  it  will  be  of  value  to 
understand  the  ideals  of  paragraph  structure;  thereafter 
we  may  consider  the  liberties  which  the  business  writer  may 
take  with  the  schoolmaster's  principles. 

EXERCISE  1. 

Divide  the  following  student's  essay  into  paragraphs  which 
correspond  to  the  main  divisions  of  the  subject: 

THE   OPERATION  OF  A  WHOLESALE   HOUSE. 

Imagine  yourself  on  a  visit  to  a  large  wholesale  house  in  Chicago. 
You  step  into  the  building  from  the  street,  pass  through  the  double 
doors,  and  find  yourself  in  the  general  office.  Directly  in  front  of 
you  is  a  long  passageway  running  the  entire  length  of  the  building. 
On  both  sides  of  the  passageway  are  rows  of  cages  and  desks,  with 
their  occupants  busily  at  work.  Perhaps  what  first  impresses  you 
is  the  activity  which  is  everywhere  exhibited.  The  whole  place 
seems  to  be  alive  with  swarming  humanity.  Hundreds  of  men  and 
girls  are  seated  at  desks,  walking  rapidly  to  and  fro  with  papers, 


142  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

or  accosting  one  another  for  a  few  moments  of  conversation.  The 
scene  appears  to  be  the  height  of  confusion,  but  in  reaHty  it  repre- 
sents the  highest  stage  of  perfection  in  organization  that  has  yet  been 
reached.  A  clerk  steps  up  to  you  and  takes  your  order.  He 
happens  to  be  a  very  obliging  person,  and  somewhat  of  a  talker  as 
well;  so,  while  you  are  waiting  for  your  goods,  he  explains  to  you 
the  course  which  orders  must  follow  in  being  filled.  Upon  coming 
into  the  house,  orders  must  be  transferred  to  a  uniform  blank, 
sometimes  called  a  "register."  On  this  register  is  written  the  name 
and  address  of  the  customer,  the  consignee  and  destination  of  the 
goods,  the  desired  date  of  shipment,  and  a  list  of  the  articles  wanted, 
arranged  according  to  the  distribution  of  the  stock.  Two  copies 
are  made  of  the  register:  one  goes  to  the  shipping  department;  the 
other  forms  a  permanent  record  of  the  transaction.  The  order 
clerk  sends  the  register  to  the  Credit  Department  for  its  0.  K.  If 
the  customer  is  in  good  standing,  the  Credit  Manager  places  his 
initials  on  the  slip;  if  not,  he  will  either  hold  the  order  for  payment 
in  advance  or  send  the  goods  on  C.  0.  D.  terms.  From  the  Credit 
Department  the  register  is  sent  to  the  stock  room.  The  stock  man 
takes  the  desired  goods  from  the  shelves  and  wraps  or  crates  them  for 
shipment  just  as  though  he  were  a  country  storekeeper  selling  his 
merchandise  over  the  counter.  The  register  and  goods  are  then 
sent  together  to  the  shipping  department.  Here  they  are  checked 
up  for  possible  errors,  bills  of  lading  are  made  out,  and  the  goods 
are  loaded  on  wagons  for  shipment.  In  your  case,  since  the  article 
is  not  to  be  shipped,  it  is  sent  to  the  delivery  desk  instead  of  to  the 
Shipping  Department,  and  in  a  short  time  your  purchase  is  in  your 
possession.  The  register  is  next  taken  to  the  Billing  Department, 
where  an  invoice  is  made  out  in  triplicate.  The  original  is  sent  to 
the  customer,  the  duplicate  goes  to  the  Bookkeeping  Department, 
and  the  triplicate  to  the  Accounting  Department.  In  the  Book- 
keeping Department  the  sales  are  posted  into  ledgers  directly  from 
the  duplicate  invoice;  in  the  Accounting  Department  the  profit 
on  each  sale  is  computed  and  the  total  of  sales  and  profits  for 
each  day  recorded.  There  is  but  one  thing  left  to  make  the 
transaction  complete.  That,  of  course,  is  payment.  It  is  to  be  as- 
sumed that  you  will  send  in  a  check  within  the  stipulated  net 
period  in  order  to  keep  your  account  balanced  on  the  books.  If  all 
orders  represented  transactions  as  simple  as  that  described  above^, 
the  routine  of  business  life  would  be  much  easier,  and  yet  much  more 
monotonous,  than  it  really  is.     But  probably  fifty  per  cent  of  the  or- 


PARAGRAPHS  143 

ders  received  by  any  wholesale  house  contain  features  which  make 
each  particular  transaction  the  object  of  special  consideration.  For 
instance,  an  order  may  be  the  result  of  a  great  deal  of  hard  work  and 
anxious  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Sales  Department.  It  may,  perhaps, 
represent  an  unusual  profit  which  has  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
General  Manager.  Again,  the  Credit  Manager,  considering  that 
the  customer  already  owes  the  company  too  much  money,  may 
countersign  the  order  only  after  exhaustive  investigation.  The 
requisition  may  be  of  special  interest  to  the  stock  man  because  it 
calls  for  articles  of  peculiar  size  or  quality.  The  Shipping  Clerk 
may  remember  the  transaction  by  the  strenuous  efforts  he  put 
forth  to  start  the  goods  towards  their  destination  in  record  time. 
Besides  the  departments  which  have  already  been  mentioned,  there 
are  special  departments  which  are  almost  indispensable  to  any 
business.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  Advertising 
Department.  Since  advertising  has  come  to  be  a  profession,  this 
department  has  grown  to  large  proportions  in  many  concerns. 
Closely  allied  to  the  Advertising  is  the  Sales  Promotion  Depart- 
ment; in  fact,  the  two  are  combined  in  all  companies  except  those 
whose  business  demands  special  work  in  soliciting.  The  Corre- 
spondence, or  "Kick,"  Department  may  be  in  charge  of  the  Sales 
Manager.  The  Mailing  Department  takes  care  of  the  distribution 
as  well  as  the  opening  and  seaUng  of  letters.  Every  company  has 
many  special  departments  incidental  to  its  business  which  have 
been  designed  to  meet  the  peculiar  conditions  under  which  it 
operates.  In  order  to  make  a  worldng  unit  of  the  whole  aggrega- 
tion of  departments,  definite  organization  is  essential.  This  is 
accomplished  by  the  interlocking  and  division  of  labor  and  by  the 
detailing  of  responsibility.  The  division  of  labor  concerns  the 
splitting  of  the  work  into  departments.  The  interlocking  of  labor 
represents  the  degree  with  which  the  various  departments  will 
work  in  harmony  with  each  other.  Unless  each  person  understands 
his  work  and  his  place,  he  will  be  as  a  broken  cog  which  produces 
a  jar  in  the  entire  machine.  The  detailing  of  responsibility  is  some- 
times rather  elaborate.  In  the  first  place,  each  worker  is  responsible 
to  his  immediate  superior,  who  is  usually  the  Department  Manager. 
The  Manager,  in  turn,  is  responsible  to  the  General  Manager  for 
the  work  of  his  department.  Again,  the  General  Manager  is  re- 
sponsible to  the  Board  of  Directors,  if  the  company  is  a  corporation, 
for  the  proper  conduct  of  the  office.  The  Board  of  Directors  is 
responsible  to  the  stockholders  for  the  success  of  the  business.    In 


144  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

practise,  the  President  of  the  corporation  is  given  general  authority 
by  the  Board  of  Directors,  and  he  works  in  harmony  with  the 
General  Manager  in  supervising  the  business. 

I.    The  Ideals  of  Paragraph  Structme, 

213.  Ideally,  the  paragraph  is  a  unit  in  itself,  with  an 
internal  structure  governed  by  the  same  laws  as  the  sen- 
tence: Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis.  It  will  develop 
one  idea;  the  different  sentences  composing  it  will  stand  in 
proper  order  and  connection;  and  the  most  important  phases 
of  the  central  topic  will  receive  adequate  and  appropriate 
emphasis. 

A.  Unity. 

214.  First  of  all,  a  paragraph  must  treat  only  one  subject; 
it  must  have  the  very  essential  quality  of  Unity.  This  is 
not  merely  a  schoolmaster's  rule;  it  is  a  principle  of  all  clear 
writing,  and  depends  for  its  sanction  upon  the  way  the 
human  mind  functions.  The  following  paragraph  from  a 
circular  intended  for  Vermont  farmers  confuses  two  matters — 
the  credit  of  the  concern,  and  the  merits  of  the  separator — 
and  by  so  doing  fails  to  make  either  point  effective: 

We  have  acquired  the  agency  for  the  A.  B.  C.  separator  in  Orleans 
and  Caledonia  counties.  Our  credit,  we  hope,  is  well  established 
with  the  farmers  of  the  locality  through  our  many  dealings  with 
them  as  agents  for  various  farm  tools.  They  will  believe  us  when 
we  tell  them  that  we  have  never  handled  any  article  in  which  we 
had  as  absolute  confidence  as  we  have  in  this  separator.  It  will  do 
anything  that  any  other  separator  will  do,  and  some  things  besides. 
It  is  easier  to  wash,  easier  to  run,  and  skims  better,  than  the  one 
you  have  now.  Trade  that  old  one  in;  we  will  make  a  liberal  allow- 
ance. Our  promises  are  always  kept:  look  us  up  in  the  Grange 
Register,  or  in  Dunn's,  if  you  want  to  learn  about  our  reputation. 
None  of  our  notes  have  ever  gone  to  protest;  we  have  never  failed  to 
pay  a  bill.    Or  ask  your  banker  what  he  knows  about  us.    Now 


PARAGRAPHS  145 

when  we  are  trying  to  help  you  make  more  money  out  of  your  dairy, 
we  put  our  hard-earned  reputation  behind  everything  we  say.  If 
you  take  one  of  these  separators  on  trial  and  don't  like  it,  we  will 
send  your  money  back  the  very  day  we  get  your  letter  asking  us  to ; 
yes,  all  of  it,  including  what  you  paid  for  freight. 

EXERCISE  2. 

1.  Rewrite  the  preceding  illustration,  dividing  it  into  two  or 
more  paragraphs. 

2.  Rewrite  the  following  ununified  paragraphs,  dividing  each 
as  seems  desirable: 

{a)  A  farmer's  life  is  not  an  easy  one.  He  has  to  work  hard  all 
day,  and  even  on  Sunday  has  to  "do  the  chores."  In  haytime 
particularly  he  is  dependent  on  good  weather.  If  his  hay  is  cut  and 
is  rained  on,  it  will  be  poor  hay.  He  must  get  up  early  in  the  morn- 
ing to  milk  the  cows,  and  even  if  he  is  tired  in  the  evening  he  must 
milk  them  again.  When  it  looks  Uke  rain  he  must  "cock"  the  hay 
to  keep  it  dry,  and  then  must  spread  it  and  toss  it  when  the  rain  is 
over.  In  winter  he  has  to  cut  ice  and  do  his  lumbering.  In  the 
spring  come  plowing,  harrowing,  and  sowing.  If  the  hay  is  put 
into  the  barn  before  it  is  dry,  it  will  "sweat,"  and  perhaps  catch 
fire.  If  it  is  too  dry  and  burned  by  the  sun,  it  loses  much  of  its 
value  as  fodder.  In  the  summer  and  autumn  he  must  work  in  the 
harvest  fields.    All  of  these  things  take  muscle  and  brains. 

(6)  There  are  two  chief  sorts  of  trouble  that  a  chauffeur  must 
guard  against:  engine  trouble  and  tire  trouble.  Both  can  be  more 
or  less  avoided  by  a  careful  driver.  Engine  trouble  may  be  due  to 
many  causes:  poor  lubrication,  dirty  gasoline,  a  leaking  radiator, 
poor  batteries,  too  "rich"  or  too  "thin"  a  mixture,  carbon  in  the 
cyUnders,  dirty  spark-plugs,  and  many  other  things.  Tire  trouble 
is  due  to  defective  tires,  poor  roads,  reckless  driving,  improper 
inflation,  faulty  alignment  of  the  wheels,  and  carelessness  in  putting 
on  new  tires.  The  chauffeur  who  wishes  to  reach  his  destination 
safely  will  look  his  engine  over  carefully  before  starting,  testing  the 
ignition,  making  sure  there  is  plenty  of  water  in  the  radiator,  and 
enough  gas  and  oil  for  the  day's  run.  He  will  tighten  any  loose 
nuts,  inspect  the  fan-belt,  and  examine  all  the  grease  cups.  He  will 
test  the  air-pressure  in  the  tires,  inspect  them  for  rim-cuts  and 
bruises,  and  will  be  sure  that  the  "spares"  are  in  good  condition. 


146  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

215.  A  paragraph  which  treats  of  only  one  main  idea, 
can  usually  be  reduced  to  a  single  sentence — a  sentence  which 
will  not,  of  course,  contain  everything  that  appears  in  the 
completed  paragraph,  but  which  will  state  concisely  the 
topic  of  the  whole.  Accordingly,  till  the  student  has  mastered 
this  essential  of  paragraph  unity,  he  will  do  well  to  state  the 
''topic  sentence"  first,  and  then,  using  this  sentence  as  a 
guide,  to  develop  and  amplify  the  central  idea.  In  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph  the  topic  sentence  is  italicized;  whatever 
follows  grows  logically  out  of  it: 

We  are  prepared  to  meet  all  the  wants  of  a  lover  of  Oriental  rugs. 
From  our  stock  rooms  you  may  select  rugs  of  all  prices  and  pat- 
terns. Our  cleaning  department  will  renovate  your  own  rugs  in 
the  most  modern  way,  each  rug  receiving  just  the  treatment  it  re- 
quires, whether  that  be  a  shampoo,  gasoline  bath,  or  vacuum  clean- 
ing. If  repairs  are  called  for,  our  native  weavers  will  treat  your 
rugs  with  all  the  care  you  would  use  yourself,  and  with  the  skill  of 
masters  of  their  craft.  Whatever  your  needs  are,  we  can  supply 
them* 

216.  Now  of  course  the  business  writer  will  not  always 
practice  such  formality  in  the  building  of  his  paragraphs. 
Nevertheless,  he  will  not  infrequently  find  use  for  this  topic- 
sentence  device.  It  will  serve  as  a  guide  and  check  to  him- 
self, and  as  a  valuable  aid  to  his  reader.  The  following 
brief  paragraphs,  in  each  of  which  the  topic  sentence  is 
italicized,  show  how  readily  the  plan  lends  itself  to  the 
practice  of  the  business  man: 

(1)  During  our  ten  years'  dealings  with  you  we  have  always  been 
pleased  with  the  treatment  you  have  given  u^.  The  courtesy  and 
efficiency  of  your  salesmen,  particularly  of  Mr.  Brown,  would  in 
themselves  have  made  friends  for  you.  Then  again,  you  have  been 
liberal  in  extending  credit,  and  when,  in  the  depression  of  1907, 
our  own  collections  were  very  slow,  you  carried  our  account  for  six 
months  without  complaint,  and  at  the  same  time  continued  ship- 
ments.   But  most  important  of  all,  we  have  learned  that  what- 


PARAGRAPHS  147 

ever  we  buy  of  you  will  be  satisfactory.  Only  three  times  have  we 
returned  engines  to  you,  and  in  each  instance  the  rejection  was 
due  to  the  transportation  company. 

(2)  Many  farmers  in  your  own  part  of  the  state  have  already  found 
that  a  "Peerless  Milker"  means  money  in  their  pockets.  John  Smith, 
of  Swampscott,  writes  that  he  milks  twice  as  many  cows  now  that 
he  has  installed  "that  contraption/'  as  he  calls  it,  and  without 
spending  a  cent  more  for  help.  George  Calderwood,  of  Chatham, 
gets  along  now  with  one  man,  whereas  before  he  always  tried  to 
have  two.  Joel  Brown,  of  Provincetown,  has  added  eight  cows 
to  his  dairy,  and  has  let  the  hired  man  go — a  saving  of  $70.00  a 
month  in  wages,  and  the  addition  of  a  good  many  dollars  for  extra 
cream. 

217.  This,  then,  is  the  first  essential  of  paragraph  struc- 
ture: a  paragraph  should  treat  of  only  one  main  idea.  Al- 
most as  important  is  the  adequate  development  of  that  idea. 
For  instance,  the  paragraphs  printed  above  would  have  been 
ineffective  had  not  the  topic  sentences  been  expanded,  or 
developed,  at  some  length. 

218.  How  this  development  is  to  be  accomplished  will 
depend  very  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  i4ea.  Sometimes 
one  will  give  reasons,  as  in  (1),  above;  sometimes,  specific 
instances,  as  in  (2);  sometimes,  particulars  and  details; 
sometimes,  causes  or  effects;  sometimes,  a  definition;  some- 
times, a  comparison  or  contrast;  sometimes,  an  analysis  of 
the  topic-idea  into  its  component  parts.  Sometimes,  too, 
the  nature  of  the  topic  will  necessitate  the  use  of  several 
methods  in  combination.  The  important  thing  is  that  after 
deciding  what  idea  the  paragraph  shall  contain,  the  writer 
develop  this  idea  so  effectively  that  the  reader  may  not  only 
grasp  the  meaning,  but  be  convinced  of  its  truth  as  well. 

219.  There  is  no  better  way  of  ensuring  an  adequate 
development  of  each  topic,  or  of  testing  the  development 
after  it  is  complete,  than  by  asking  questions.  What  does 
this  mean?    Will  the  reader  understand  these  terms?    Do 


148  THE  ENGLISH  OF   BUSINESS 

they  need  illustration?  Will  another  specific  instance  help? 
Why  is  this  statement  true?  The  answers  to  these  and 
similar  queries  will  usually  furnish  abundant  material  from 
which  to  amplify  the  topic  statements. 

EXERCISE  3. 

1.  in  each  of  the  following  paragraphs  pick  out  the  topic  sen- 
tence and  state  the  method  or  methods  of  development  which  the 
author  has  used: 

(a)  A  profession  is  a  voluntary  association  of  men  who  profess 
or  undertake  to  administer  a  social  function  efficiently  and  responsi- 
bly without  consideration  of  reward.  The  elements  of  this 
definition  are  worth  examination.  Note,  in  the  first  place,  that  the 
association  must  be  voluntary;  for  it  is  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  any 
profession  that  the  men  who  make  the  profession  should  have  been 
forced  to  do  so;  a  profession  must  be  a  voluntary  act.  Note,  in 
the  second  place,  that  the  nature  of  the  profession  must  be  that  of  a 
social  function;  in  other  words,  a  necessity  of  society;  and,  in  the 
third  place,  that  the  professing  members  of  the  profession  undertake 
on  their  own  responsibility  to  discharge  the  fimction  efficiently. 
Note  finally,  that  the  consideration  for  the  services  rendered  by  a 
profession  is  not  reward  or  pay,  but  the  satisfaction  of  a  duty  dis- 
charged and  of  a  function  performed.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that 
professional  men  do,  in  fact,  charge  for  their  services;  are,  in  fact, 
paid;  and  actually  live  by  the  exercise  of  their  professional  skill. 
The  claim,  however,  of  a  profession  as  distinct  from  a  trade  is 
that  pay  or  reward  is  incidental  and  not  primary;  and  that  the 
efficiency  of  professional  service  is  not  measured  or  determined  by 
the  amount  or  prospect  of  the  material  reward.  It  is  this  char- 
acteristic of  claim,  if  not  of  fact,  that  secures  to  a  profession  a  socially 
higher  status  than  belongs  to  a  trade  in  which  services  are  measured 
out  on  a  cash  basis. 

(6)  Tolerance  too  is  learned  in  discussion,  and,  as  history  shows, 
is  only  so  learned.  In  all  customary  societies  bigotry  is  the  rufing 
principle.  In  rude  places  to  this  day  any  one  who  says  anything 
new  is  looked  on  with  suspicion,  and  is  persecuted  by  opinion  if  not 
injured  by  penalty.  One  of  the  greatest  pains  to  human  nature  is 
the  pain  of  a  new  idea.    It  is,  as  common  people  say,  so  "up- 


PARAGRAPHS  149 

setting";  it  makes  you  think  that,  after  all,  your  favorite  notion 
may  be  wrong,  your  firmest  beliefs  ill-founded;  it  is  certain  that 
till  now  there  was  no  place  allotted  in  your  mind  to  the  new  and 
startling  inhabitant,  and  now  that  it  has  conquered  an  entrance, 
you  do  not  at  once  see  which  of  your  old  ideas  it  will  or  will  not  turn 
out,  with  which  of  them  it  can  be  reconciled,  and  with  which  it  is  at 
essential  enmity.  Naturally,  therefore,  common  men  hate  a  new 
idea,  and  are  disposed  more  or  less  to  ill-treat  the  original  man  who 
brings  it.  Even  nations  with  long  habits  of  discussion  are  intolerant 
enough.  In  England,  where  there  is  on  the  whole  probably  a  freer 
discussion  of  a  greater  number  of  subjects  than  ever  was  before 
in  the  world,  we  know  how  much  power  bigotry  retains.  But  dis- 
cussion, to  be  successful,  requires  tolerance.  It  fails  wherever,  as 
in  a  French  political  assembly,  any  one  who  hears  anjrthing  which 
he  disUkes  tries  to  howl  it  down.  If  we  know  that  a  nation  is  capa- 
ble of  enduring  continuous  discussion,  we  know  that  it  is  capable  of 
practising  with  equanimity  continuous  tolerance. 

(c)  All  these  unprecedented  conditions  have  conspired  to  give 
business  for  business'  sake  a  fascination  and  overwhehning  im- 
portance it  has  never  had  before.  We  no  longer  make  things  for 
the  sake  of  making  them,  but  for  money.  The  chair  is  not  made  to 
sit  on,  but  for  profit;  the  soap  is  no  longer  prepared  for  purposes  of 
cleanhness,  but  to  be  sold  for  profit.  Practically  nothing  catches 
our  eye  in  the  way  of  writing  that  was  written  for  its  own  sake  and 
not  for  money.  Our  magazines  and  newspapers  are  our  modem 
commercial  travelers  proclaiming  the  gospel  of  business  competi- 
tion. Formerly  the  laboring  classes  worked  because  they  were 
slaves  or  because  they  were  defenceless  and  could  not  escape  from 
thraldom — or,  mayhap,  because  they  were  natural  artisans;  but 
now  they  are  coming  into  a  position  where  they  combine  and  bar- 
gain and  enter  into  business  competition  with  their  employers. 
Like  their  employers,  they  are  learning  to  give  as  little  as  possible 
for  as  much  as  possible.  This  is  good  business;  and  the  employer 
fehould  realize  that  at  last  he  has  succeeded  in  teaching  his  em- 
ployees to  be  strictly  businesslike.  When  houses  were  built  to 
live  in,  and  wheat  and  cattle  grown  to  eat,  these  essential  indus- 
tries took  care  of  themselves.  But  now  that  profit  is  the  motive  of 
building  houses  and  raising  grain,  if  the  promised  returns  are 
greater  from  manufacturing  automobiles  or  embroidered  Mngerie, 
one  is  tempted  to  ask  if  there  are  any  longer  compelling  reasons 
for  building  houses  or  raising  food? 


150  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

(d)  Arnold's  lecture  on  "Literature  and  Science,"  delivered  in 
America  in  1883,  was  addressed  to  a  people  mainly  employed,  like 
those  for  whom  Spencer  legislated,  in  the  "production,  prepara- 
tion and  distribution  of  commodities."  But  when  we  turn  from 
Spencer's  Education  to  this  lecture  we  are  in  the  presence  of  quite  a 
different  order  of  ideas.  The  difference  is  not  felt  merely  in  the 
fact  that  we  have  turned  from  a  self-educated  man  to  a  man  who 
has  undergone  the  best  traditional  discipHnes,  from  an  advocate  of 
the  natural  sciences  to  an  advocate  of  humane  letters,  from  an  edu- 
cational theorist  to  an  educational  expert  intimately  in  touch  for 
thirty  years  with  educational  practise  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent.  No:  the  difference  is  felt  primarily  in  the  opposition  of 
two  unhke  conceptions  of  man  and  his  destiny  on  the  planet.  To 
Spencer,  man  is  an  animal,  who  by  natural  cunning  has  managed 
to  get  his  head  a  little  higher  than  the  apes  and  to  live  more  com- 
fortably than  they,  and  who  by  the  scientific  extension  of  his  cun- 
ning may  expect  to  Uve  still  more  comfortably.  To  Arnold,  who 
waives  the  question  of  man's  ultimate  origin,  man  is  now  essentially 
a  moral  being,  who  by  certain  disciplines  has  fortified  his  instinct 
for  righteousness,  wisdom  and  beauty,  and  who  by  the  continued 
use  of  these  disciplines  may  expect  to  make  progress  in  perfecting 
his  essence.  Between  the  lines  of  scientific  cunning  along  which  an 
animal  achieves  comfort  and  the  lines  of  discipline  along  which  a 
moral  being  perfects  his  essence  there  are  many  points  of  contact 
and  coincidence.  But  the  ends  are  not  the  same.  Between  the 
ultimate  ideals  there  is  an  irreconcilable  conflict  which  it  is  idle  to 
slur  over  or  to  attempt  to  disguise.  The  special  service  of  Arnold's 
light-handed  but  firm  critical  meditation  is  in  showing  how  far 
hterature  and  the  natural  sciences  go  together,  and  where  they  part. 

2.  Select  five  of  the  following  topic-sentences,  and  write  well- 
unified  paragraphs  developing  them.  Indicate  the  method  or 
methods  you  use. 

1.  An  automobile  is  easier  to  ride  in  than  a  trolley-car. 

2.  Woollen  clothes  wear  longer  than  cotton  ones. 

3.  A  business  woman  should  dress  neatly. 

4.  Making  hay  is  hard  work. 

5.  It  is  hard  to  sharpen  an  axe. 

'-  6.    A  business  letter  should  be  neatly  typed. 

7.    Typed  letters  are  better  than  written  ones. 


PARAGRAPHS  151 

8.  Many   things   may   spoil   a  potato  (wheat,   cotton) 
crop. 

9.  An  umpire  in  a  base-ball  game  has  a  hard  job. 

10.  Beans  should  not  be  hoed  when  they  are  wet. 

11.  This  school  room  is  well  (poorly)  ventilated. 

12.  "Babe  Ruth"  is  a  great  ball  player. 

13.  Football  develops  a  man  in  many  ways. 

14.  A  referee  in  a  basket  ball  game  must  be  an  athlete. 

15.  Once  I  had  a  strange  experience. 

16.  Gophers  ruin  crops. 

17.  I  almost  smashed  our  car  the  other  day. 

18.  She  was  an  expert  needlewoman. 

19.  Well-chosen  pictures  add  much  to  a  room. 

20.  "Scouting"  is  good  fun  for  boys  (girls). 

21.  A  girl  has  better  judgment  than  a  boy. 

22.  It  is  easy  to  grow  radishes. 

23.  Housecleaning  is  fun  (hard  work). 

24.  Dancing  is  good  exercise. 

25.  All  girls  (boys)  should  know  how  to  swim. 

26.  My  first  dive  was  a  funny  one. 

27.  A  man's  signature  should  be  easily  legible. 

28.  Our  visit  to  the  Chautauqua  was  lots  of  fun. 

29.  The  term  "profiteering"  has  come  to  be  used  in  a 
rather  definite  way. 

30.  My  ideal  of  an  educated  man  is  a  fairly  broad  one. 

31.  The  term  "Business  English"  is  a  misnomer. 

3.  Write  a  paragraph  explaining  the  meaning  of  one  of  the 
following  terms:  adjustment  letter,  salary,  bibliography,  overhead 
charges,  stockholder,  lockout,  arbitration,  free  trade,  single  tax, 
turnover. 

220.  So  far  we  have  been  concerned  with  the  substance 
of  a  paragraph:  it  should  deal  with  only  one  main  idea,  and 
should  develop  that  idea  adequately.  No  less  important  is 
it,  however,  that  the  sentences  composing  the  paragraph 
follow  one  another  so  as  to  make  the  main  idea  as  clear  as 
possible,  and  that  the  connections  and  transitions  between 
the  different  parts  be  appropriately  indicated.  In  other 
words,  Coherence  must  go  hand  in  hand  with  Unity. 


152      •         THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

B.   Coherence. 

221.  The  first  means  of  securing  coherent,  and  therefore 
clear,  paragraphs  is  to  see  that  the  individual  sentences  are. 
arranged  in  some  recognizable  order.  Of  all  the  possible 
orders  from  which  a  writer  may  choose,  the  business  man 
will  probably  find  most  use  for  two:  he  will  either  state 
things  as  they  occurred  in  chronological  sequence;  or,  if  he  is 
explaining  something,  he  will  be  guided  by  the  demands  of 
logic.  The  first  of  the  following  paragraphs  carries  out  a 
simple  chronological  plan;  each  sentence  prepares  for  the  one 
that  follows,  as  each  event  gave  rise  to  the  succeeding  one. 
The  second,  in  which  the  element  of  time  does  not  enter, 
attains  its  coherence  by  following  the  topic  idea  through  in 
logical  fashion,  the  general  statement  with  which  the  para- 
graph opens  being  supported  by  various  particulars. 

(1)  (Chronological)  Now,  Mr.  Brown,  this  is  the  history  of  that 
order.  On  October  1  you  placed  it  with  our  salesman,  Mr.  Jefferson, 
asking  him  to  do  all  that  he  could  to  rush  it.  Two  days  later,  after 
.receiving  the  order  from  Mr.  Jefferson  by  wire,  we  telegraphed  you 
that  we  were  hurrying  it  through,  and  could  probably  make  delivery 
by  October  10.  To  this  wire  you  replied  by  letter  on  October  4, 
saying:  "Thank  you  for  your  trouble.  I  hope  the  shipment  will 
be  here  on  the  tenth  of  the  month,  as  we  need  it  badly."  On 
October  9,  one  day  ahead  of  the  time  we  had  set,  we  shipped  the 
entire  order  by  prepaid  express,  so  that  it  might  be  at  your  factory 
on  time.  On  the  morning  of  the  tenth  we  received  a  telegram 
from  you  to  this  effect:  "Cancel  order  of  October  1  for  special 
cables.  Letter  follows."  The  letter  referred  to  came  on  the 
twelfth,  and  explained  that  you  no  longer  had  need  of  the  cables 
since  you  had  been  able  to  splice  some  old  ones.  To  this  we  replied 
that  the  order  had  been  accepted  in  good  faith  by  us,  had  been 
rushed  through  at  your  request,  and  had  been  shipped  before  we 
received  your  telegram.  Consequently  we  did  not  feel  that  we 
,shoi;ld  accept  the  goods  for  credit,  as  they  were  of  special  sizes  and 
lengths,  and  almost  unsalable  in  ordinary  trade.  To  this  you  made 
ho  reply,  but  returned  the  entire  order  to  us  by  freight  on 
October  20. 


PARAGRAPHS  153 

(2)  (Logical)  A  live  commercial  association  can  do  much  for  a  city. 
First  of  all,  by  collecting  information  about  credit  ratings,  and  fur- 
nishing the  results  to  its  members,  it  can  stabiUze  the  granting  of 
credit  and  protect  merchants  against  "slow-pay"  or  "dead-beat" 
customers.  Again,  by  carefully  studying  the  business  needs  of  the 
city  and  calUng  attention,  through  advertising  compaigns,  to  the 
ability  of  local  merchants  to  satisfy  these  needs,  it  can  further 
promote  the  interests  of  its  members,  and  keep  the  money  at  home 
which  might  otherwise  have  gone  to  Chicago  stores.  Third,  as  an 
organization  of  the  city's  representative  men,  it  can  exert  a  powerful 
influence  in  favor  of  municipal  improvements:  good  streets,  better 
lighting,  libraries,  adequate  parks,  etc.,  and  thus  contribute  in  large 
measure  to  the  best  sort  of  civic  development.  {Here  the  develops 
ment  proceeds  from  small  things  to  larger:  first,  credit  ratings; 
second,  development  of  all  local  trade;  third,  genuine  improvement  of 
the  city.) 

The  careful  writer  will  see  to  it,  then,  that  there  is  some  definite 
order  in  the  arrangement  of  sentences  in  his  paragraphs.  If 
he  is  scrupulous  about  this,  his  reader  will  seldom  say,  "I 
don't  follow  him." 

222.  Almost  invariably  it  will  be  wise  to  assist  the  reader 
by  using  appropriate  connectives  and  transitional  phrases, 
such  as  the  italicized  words  in  the  preceding  illustration.  Of 
course  no  one  should  depend  upon  these  phrases  to  make 
his  meaning  clear,  but  one  may  well  employ  them  as  sign- 
boards marking  changes  in  the  direction  of  the  highway. 

223.  For  instance,  to  indicate  simple  continuation  of  the 
thought,  such  words  as  and,  again,  second,  next,  in  the  first 
(second,  etc.)  place,  furthermore,  moreover,  besides,  are  helpful. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  on  the  contrary,  however,  express  con- 
trast; hence,  consequently,  as  a  result,  accordingly,  imply 
consequence  or  effect;  therefore,  for  this  reason,  hence,  intro- 
duce a  logical  conclusion.  The  student  who  aspires  to  clear- 
ness and  precision  of  effect  will  master  a  generous  stock  of 
such  connectives  and  use  them  as  one  means  of  indicating 
the  direction  and  connection  of  his  thought. 


154  THE  ENG^LISH  OF  BUSINESS 

224.  Of  these  connectives,  and  and  but  always  stand  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence  or  clause.  The  others,  for  the 
most  part,  may  be  used  either  at  the  beginning  or  in  the 
middle.  The  initial  position  is  most  emphatic;  the  middle 
is  less  formal,  and  not  infrequently  makes  for  smoother 
transition.  However,  is  almost  invariably  "buried"  by 
careful  writers:  "We  followed  out  our  plan,  however, 
despite  the  warning  of  the  strikers.'' 

EXERCISE  4. 

1.  Fill  in  the  blanks  in  the  following  paragraphs,  using  some  of 
the  words  italicized  in  paragraph  223  : 

(a)  We  want  you  to  be  absolutely  satisfied; we  make  this 

definite  offer: ,  we  will  give  you  credit  for  the  goods  you  have 

returned;  ,  we  will  allow  an  extension  of  thirty  days  on  the 

rest  of  the  shipment.    you  in  your  turn  wish  us  to  be  satisfied. 

you  will,  of  course,  send  us  your  check  for  the  amount  now 

overdue.    of  this  arrangement,  we  shall  be  able  to  continue 

our  pleasant  relations  in  the  future. 

(b)  An  educated  woman  has  a  better  chance  of  success  than  the 
uneducated  one.    In  the  first  place,  she  usually  knows  more  about 

men  and  women.    ,  she  has  had  better  mental  training. , 

she  has  had  an  opportunity  to  test  herseK  in  competition  with 

others.    ,  when  she  goes  out  into  the  world  she  is  well  prepared 

to  solve  its  problems. 

(c)  We  asked  for  a  price  by  the  dozen.    You,  ,  sent  only 

the  price  of  the  single  article.    we  are  still  somewhat  hesitant 

about  ordering. 

(d)  The  American  soldier  was  full  of  initiative  and  resourceful- 
ness.   The  German,  ,  was  helpless  except  when  under  strict 

supervision.    ,  when  the  two  met  hand  to  hand,  the  German 

was  worsted. 

(e)  Some  people  use  cord  tires  on  Fords.    We, ,  believe  that 

it  is  more  economical  to  use  a  good  fabric, the  light  car  hardly 

warrants  the  heavy  tires.    we  are  sending  your  car  with  the 

standard  fabric  equipment. 

(/)  " ,"  he  said,  "I  am  a  friend  of  the  League  of  Nations. 

I  believe  in  such  an  international  association.    I  shall  vote 

for  the  Peace  Treaty.'' 


PARAGRAPHS  155 

2.  Look  over  the  themes  you  have  written  so  far  for  this  course 
and  make  a  Ust,  classified  according  to  the  suggestions  in  para- 
graph 223,  of  the  connective  words  or  expressions  you  have  used 
to  link  together  your  sentences. 

3.  Read  a  dozen  pages  of  some  good  modern  English  prose 
writer,  and  list  all  of  the  connective  words  or  phrases  you  find.  If 
you  notice  any  expressions  not  listed  in  paragraph  223,  copy  them 
into  your  notebook.  Look  over  your  lists  before  you  write  your  next 
three  themes. 

225.  Very  often,  again,  it  promotes  coherence  to  carry 
the  same  subject  through  a  paragraph  by  means  of  pro- 
nouns, or  synonyms,  or  to  employ  in  general  the  same  kind 
of  sentence  structure  throughout.  Nothing  detracts  more 
from  ease  and  smoothness  of  transition  than  frequent  or 
needless  shifts  in  person  or  point  of  view.     For  example: 

The  X.  Y.  Z.  Adding  Machme  is  much  more  than  its  name  sug- 
gests. It  adds,  to  be  sure,  and  that  is  its  chief  function.  But  it 
subtracts  as  well;  it  multiplies;  it  divides.  It  gives  subtotals  and 
final  totals.  It  even  extracts  square-  and  cube-roots.  It  is  a 
highly  trained  mathematician  always  at  your  command,  and— li 
cannot  make  a  mistake. 

226.  Closely  akin  to  this  method  of  securing  coherence 
is  the  repetition,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  in  slightly 
different  terms,  of  either  the  subject  or  object  idea  of  the 
preceding  sentence.     Thus: 

There  are  various  good  ways  of  keeping  accounts;  the  best  is 
to  use  the  A.  B.  C.  loose  leaf  system.  This  system  is  not  the  product 
of  any  theorist's  brain;  it  is  the  result  of  ten  years  of  experimentation 
in  a  large  and  constantly  growing  business  office.  It  is  the  result  of 
practical  business  experience,  acquired  by  three  inteUigent  men 
who  were  determined  to  simpUfy  the  complex  machinery  of  the 
modern  office.  Their  success  in  lightening  the  work  in  their  own 
office  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  their  simple  system  by  dozens  of 
their  friends  who  saw  and  approved  what  these  men  had  done. 
When  you  see  you  too  will  approve:  may  we  show  you  now? 


156  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

227.  The  business  writer  need  not  worry  much  about 
other  methods  of  giving  coherence  to  his  paragraphs.  The 
important  thing  is  that  he  realize  the  value  of  the  quality, 
that  he  have  some  plan  in  mind,  and  that  he  be  consistent 
throughout  the  paragraph. 

EXERCISE  5. 

1.  Study  the  methods  of  securing  paragraph  coherence  used  in 
each  of  the  paragraphs  printed  in  Exercise  3  of  this  chapter. 

2.  Look  over  your  paragraphed  version  of  the  theme  printed  in 
Exercise  1  of  this  chapter,  and  make  any  improvements  you  can 
in  the  coherence  of  the  paragraphs. 

3.  Rewrite  the  following  paragraph  in  such  a  way  as  to  improve 
the  coherence: 

On  the  other  hand,  if  I  chose  traveling  I  would  probably  learn 
as  much  as  I  would  at  summer-school  and  would  be  rested  after  the 
change.  This  would  enable  me  to  do  better  work  next  year.  Many 
people  consider  traveling  valuable  in  obtaining  an  education.  By 
seeing  new  sights  and  meeting  new  people  you  are  aided  in  taking  a 
broader  view  of  life.  Travel  broadens  people  and  is  in  itself  a 
great  pleasure.  It  widens  your  knowledge  and  seems  to  go  hand 
in  hand  with  the  knowledge  obtained  at  a  university. 

C.   Emphasis. 

228.  For  the  purposes  of  business  writing  the  problem  of 
proper  emphasis  may  be  reduced  to  two  simple  suggestions: 
(1)  Make  the  main  idea  of  the  paragraph  prominent  by 
stating  it  clearly,  briefly,  pointedly,  early  in  the  paragraph, 
and  whenever  practicable,  by  restating  it  in  slightly  varied 
terms,  at  the  end.  (2)  Do  not  give  to  subordinate  ideas 
disproportionate  space;  avoid  digressions  from  the  main  line 
of  thought;  ''play  up"  the  principal  idea,  and  do  nothing 
which  might  interfere  with  the  central  effect.  |The  following 
paragraph  illustrates  the  effective  use  of  the  beginning  and 
end: 

We  want  your  aid  in  making  the  "JournaV  as  attractive  as 
possible.    We  have  just  finished  our  tenth  year,  and  during  this 


PARAGRAPHS  157 

decade  the  number  of  our  subscribers  has  increased  from  348  to 
140,000.  Such  a  healthy  development  indicates  that  our  work 
has  not  been  unappreciated  by  the  pubhc.  But  we  are  going  to  do 
better  still  during  the  next  ten  years— if  you  will  help  us.  For  the 
sake  of  the  "Journal,"  take  ten  minutes,  now,  and  tell  us  what  we  can 
do  to  make  the  paper  still  more  attractive  to  its  readers. 

229.  ^The  thoughtful  writer  will  find  at  his  disposal  other 
means  of  giving  emphasis  to  his  paragraphs.  A  climactic 
arrangement  of  ideas,  sharply  varied  sentence  structure, 
vivid  and  unusual  words — all  these  devices,  provided  they 
are  not  overworked,  may  be  helpful.J  But  at  first  it  will  be 
sufiicient  to  remember  the  importance  of  the  beginning  and 
end  of  a  paragraph,  and  to  guard  against  the  easy  habit  of 
allowing  digressions  to  interfere  with  what  should  be  an 
unbroken  march  of  ideas. 

EXERCISE  6. 

Rearrange  the  sentences  in  the  following  paragraphs  so  that  the 
emphasis  shall  be  better  distributed: 

1.  Eight  Hghts  on  the  main  street  have  been  broken;  four  are 
so  dirty  as  to  be  useless.  The  electric  lighting  in  this  town  is  very 
poor.  Sometimes  the  current  is  not  turned  on  till  long  after  dark; 
other  times  it  is  allowed  to  burn  all  day.  It  has  got  to  be  a  regular 
joke:  you  have  to  carry  a  lantern  to  find  the  lights  on  dark  nights. 
This  is  the  worst  town  in  the  county;  all  the  travelling  men  laugh 

at  us. 

2.  However  pretty  a  daisy  field  may  be  to  look  at,  no  farmer 
enjoys  the  sight,  for  it  means  less  hay  in  the  barn  and  less  money 
from  the  creamery.  Daisies  ruin  a  hay  field.  Whatever  the 
"summer  boarder"  may  think  of  them,  the  farmer  knows  they  are 
pests.  They  kill  off  the  clover  and  timothy,  and  exhaust  the  soil 
rapidly.    They  make  poor  hay  themselves,  for  the  cattle  dishke 

them. 

3.  Our  car  is  easy  to  take  care  of,  easy  to  start,  and  easy  to 
control.  Anyone  can  run  a  Ford.  Three  foot-pedals  and  one 
brake  lever  are  all  one  needs  to  bother  about.  The  new  equipment 
of  starter  and  hghts  is  much  better  than  the  old.    Gear-shifting  13 


158  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

easy,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  a  mistake.  A  person 
who  has  been  confused  by  the  intricacy  of  some  of  the  larger  cars 
is  pleased  and  surprised  when  he  first  runs  a  Ford. 

4.  At  the  close  of  the  day's  business  Saturday  there  were  in  the 
Savings  Department  135  accounts,  totalling  $18,425.58.  In  the 
Commercial  Department  there  were  161  accounts,  with  $42,158.75 
deposits.  People  should  patronize  their  local  bank  better.  This 
is  a  good  showing,  but  not  what  it  should  be.  The  bank  is  growing 
daily,  but  more  accounts  must  come  in  if  it  is  to  be  as  helpful  as 
local  merchants  wish  it  to  be. 

5.  A  "Chautauqua"  brings  in  many  visitors  from  the  outside. 
It  gives  people  a  chance  to  hear  famous  lecturers  and  to  see  inter- 
esting entertainments.  It  furnishes  a  combination  of  amusement 
and  education.  A  "Chautauqua"  is  a  good  thing  for  any  town. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  things  a  town  can  support.  It  stimulates 
business  and  encourages  serious  thinking. 


II.    Adaptations  of  these  Principles  to  Business  Writing. 

230.  Such,  then,  are  the  ideals  of  paragraphing,  so  far  as 
the  paragraph  as  an  independent  unit  is  concerned.  What 
departures  from  this  standard  may  the  business  man  permit 
himself? 

231.  Certainly  what  has  been  said  about  paragraph  unity 
may  well  be  modified  for  the  business  man.  He  will  never, 
to  be  sure,  permit  himself  to  spoil  a  paragraph  by  forcing  it  to 
treat  of  more  than  one  main  idea;  but  he  need  not  fear  the 
result  of  breaking  up  into  two  or  three  short  paragraphs 
what  in  non-business  writing  would  normally  be  a  fairly 
long  paragraph.  Especially  since  most  of  his  writing  will 
be  in  the  form  of  letters,  he  will  use  these  short,  easily  read 
paragraphs  far  more  often  than  he  would  if  he  were  com- 
posing literary  essays.  The  short  unit  is  inviting;  it  is 
readily  grasped  by  the  eye  of  the  reader;  several  relatively 
brief  paragraphs,  moreover,  make  a  better  appearance  on  a 
sheet  of  letter  paper  than  does  a  single  long  one.  Notice 
that  the  second  of  these  two  letters  is  distinctly  more  appeal- 


PARAGRAPHS  159 

ing  than  the  first,  although  the  words  are  precisely  the 
same  in  both : 

(1) 

Dear  Mr.   Jones: 

Have  you  ever  thought  of  using  our  garage  for  storing  your 
car?   We  are  equipped  to  take  tetter  care  of  it  than  you  can  at  home, 
and  if  you  will  try  us  for  a  month,  you  will  find  that  we  can  actu- 
ally save  you  money.   Our  building  is  absolutely  fireproof;  we  have 
help  enough  so  that  we  can  wash,  adjust,  or  repair  on  a  moment's 
notice.   Our  service  station  is  completely  equipped  with  everything 
that  could  be  needed  in  a  first-class  city  establishment,  and  our 
workmen  are  all  experts.   It  is  not  disparaging  to  you  to  say  that 
we  can  do  better  work  in  such  a  shop  than  you  can  do  at  your  bench  in 
'"Gasoline  Alley. ''   And  about  the  cost?   Just  figure  ten  minutes 
on  this  one  question:  How  much  is  your  time  worth?   Uot  less  than 
two  dollars  an  hour,  is  it?   All  right;  we  can  save  you  money. 


(2) 


Dear  Ur.  Jones: 

Have  you  ever  thought  cf  using  our  garage  for  storing  your 
car? 

We  are  equipped  to  take  better  care  of  it  than  you  can  at 
home,  and  if  you  will  try  us  for  a  month,  you  will  find  that  we  can 
actually  save  you  money. 

Our  building  is  absolutely  fireproof;  we  have  help  enough  so 
that  we  can  wash,  adjust,  or  repair,  on  a  moment's  notice.   Our 
service  station  is  completely  equipped  with  everything  that  could  b» 
needed  in  a  first-class  city  establishment,  and  our  workmen  are  all 
experts.   It  is  not  disparaging  to  you  to  say  that  we  can  do  better 
work  in  such  a  shop  than  you  can  do  at  your  bench  in  '  'Gasoline 
Alley. • ' 

And  about  the  cost?   Just  figure  ten  minutes  on  this  one 
question:  How  much  is  your  time  worth?   Not  less  than  two  dollars  an 
hour,  is  it? 

All  right;  we  can  save  you  nloney. 

In  (1)  the  topic  sentence  is  developed  in  one  paragraph;  in 
(2)  the  development  is  identical,  but  it  is  spread  over  five 
paragraphs,  which  make  an  admirably  balanced  appearance 
on  the  page. 

232.     This  does  not  mean,  of  course,  that  adequate  devel- 
opment of  a  given  topic  is  any  less  essential  in  business  than 


160  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

in  literary  English.  It  means  only  that  what  normally 
would  appear  as  a  single  paragraph,  may,  in  the  business 
letter  or  circular,  be  divided  into  several  shorter  units. 

233.  Again,  the  fact  that  a  series  of  short  paragraphs 
may  be  more  serviceable  in  a  letter  than  a  single  long  and 
logically  unified  one,  does  not  in  any  way  justify  the  rather 
common  practice  of  beginning  a  new  paragraph  with  each 
new  sentence.  When  the  process  of  shortening  is  thus 
carried  to  extremes,  the  paragraph  has  lost  all  of  its  signifi- 
cance and  much  of  its  value.  The  man  who  cannot  ''get  his 
ideas  over"  without  separating  every  two  sentences  by  a 
double  space,  will  soon  find  himself  driven  to  copious  under- 
lining and  violent  capitalization.  Such  devices  catch  the 
eye  of  the  unpractised  reader  at  first,  but  they  soon  lose  their 
effectiveness.  A  writer  who  desires  to  convince  his  reader 
as  well  as  to  arrest  his  attention,  will  depend  not  upon  red 
ink,  but  upon  the  ability  to  state  an  idea  well  and  develop 
it  cogently. 

234.  In  other  respects  what  we  have  said  concerning  the 
ideal  paragraph  applies  with  little  or  no  modification  to  the 
business  inan's  writing.  Incoherence  and  faulty  emphasis 
are  always  baffling. 

235.  There  now  remains  the  consideration  of  the  para- 
graph as  one  unit  in  a  series.  Here  the  chief  concerns  are 
such  matters  as  smooth  transitions  from  one  paragraph  to 
another,  and  methods  of  so  connecting  the  different  units 
that  they  will  form  a  coherent  whole.  All  these  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  next  chapter  on  ''The  Preparation  of  Articles 
and  Reports." 

EXERCISE  7. 

1.  Rewrite  the  two  illustrations  used  in  paragraph  221,  arrang- 
ing the  material  as  you  think  it  should  appear  in  a  business  letter. 

2.  Rewrite  the  following  passages,  paragraphing  them  for  use 
in  a  business  letter: 


PARAGRAPHS  Ibl 

(a)  Brown,  Green  &  Co.  have  been  designing,  planning,  and 
carrying  through  diversified  building  projects  in  the  industrial 
field  for  nearly  fifty  years.  This  breadth  of  experience  has  enabled 
them  to  conceive  and  develop  new  ideas — to  anticipate  and  provide 
for  the  requirements  of  tomorrow.  It  has  enabled  them  to  introduce 
many  manufacturing  methods  now  in  general  use,  and  to  contribute 
generously  to  the  advancement  of  architectural  and  engineering 
practise.  The  Brown,  Green  organization  applies  an  understand- 
ing of  commercial  and  business  conditions,  as  well  as  technical  skill, 
to  the  carrying  out  of  your  industrial  projects.  You  need  this  full- 
rounded  service  and  this  background  of  experience  and  pioneer- 
ins;  if  you  would  "build  with  foresight."  Our  representative  is 
equipped  to  take  up  your  problems  in  detail. 

(6)  You  undoubtedly  are  deeply  interested  in  protecting  the 
weKare  of  your  family  after  you  are  gone.  You  may  have  accumu- 
lated an  estate  ample  enough  to  insure  them  a  comfortable  living, 
but  have  you  taken  any  steps  to  prevent  this  estate  disappearing 
when  you  are  no  longer  here  to  watch  over  it?  The  number  of 
fortunes  that  have  wasted  away  through  the  lack  of  business  judg- 
ment on  the  part  of  heirs  is  astounding — probably  every  reader  of 
this  knows  of  at  least  one.  You  can  prevent  your  estate  disappear- 
ing in  this  way  by  putting  it  in  the  hands  of  a  responsible  trust 
company.  Our  more  than  thirty-eight  years  of  banking  and  invest- 
ment experience  is  at  your  disposal  in  this  connection  at  any  time. 

(c)  Regardless  of  your  ability  to  buy  any  car  you  choose,  con- 
sider if  you  can  find  the  justification  of  finer  quality  in  a  costlier 

car  than .    To  appreciate  its  value  you  need  not  be  a 

enthusiast  in  the  sense  of  those  thousands  who  hold  it  essentially 
the  greatest  of  cars.  But  j^ou  must  recognize  its  long-held  position 
among  the  leaders  in  performance,  rehability,  and  distinction.  And 
consider  what  an  endorsement  is  represented  in  its  more  than  five 
years  leadership  of  fine  car  sales!  Now  that  its  price  advantage 
is  even  more  intensified,  will  not  its  sixth  year  of  sales  leadership 
show  even  a  greater  margin  of  popular  preference? 

EXERCISE  8. 

1.  Select  from  Exercise  3  of  this  chapter  any  five  topic-sentences 
not  already  treated,  and  expand  them  into  paragraphs,  taking 
special  pains  to  apply  what  you  have  learned  concerning  coherence 
and  emphasis.    Underhne  all  transitional  or  connective  expressions. 


162  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

2.  Write  a  paragraph  on  some  particular  aspect  of  one  of  the 
following  subjects.  Before  handing  it  in,  underline  your  topic- 
sentence  and  state  the  method  or  methods  of  development  which 
you  have  used. 

1.  Business  Correspondence. 

2.  The  Financing  of  High  School  Athletics. 

3.  Getting  a  Job  for  the  Summer. 

4.  Securing  Advertisements  for  the  School  Pap^r. 

5.  Class  Pontics. 

6.  The  Market  for  Second-hand  Automobiles. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  AND  REPORTS. 

236.  Up  to  this  point  we  have  been  considering  only  the 
smaller  elements  of  composition:  words,  sentences,  and 
paragraphs.  Skill  in  using  these  is  a  fundamental  part  of 
the  equipment  of  any  writer.  But,  after  all,  the  successful 
arrangement  of  words  into  sentences  and  paragraphs  is  to 
the  practical  business  of  composition  only  what  a  mastery 
of  scales  and  chords  is  to  finished  performance  on  the  piano. 
In  other  words,  if  one  is  seriously  interested  in  writing 
effectively,  one  must  know  how  to  combine  these  elements 
into  larger  wholes. 

237.  That  the  business  man  or  woman  may  be  called 
upon  to  write  at  considerable  length,  everyone  realizes. 
Often  a  person  just  entering  upon  work  with  a  large  concern 
is  asked  to  look  up  information  about  the  business  and  to 
make  a  report  on  some  phase  of  it:  the  purpose  of  such  in- 
vestigation being,  of  course,  not  to  present  information  to  the 
Manager  or  President,  but  to  familiarize  the  newcomer  with 
the  field.  Letters,  reports — from  a  brief  summary  of  the. 
accomplishment  of  a  week  to  an  annual  report  to  the  Board 
of  Directors — advertising  bulletins,  trade  pamphlets,  techni- 
cal articles  in  professional  journals:  with  all  of  these  types 
of  writing  the  business  man  is  familiar,  and  some  or  all  of 
them  he  is  sure  sooner  or  later  to  have  to  attempt.  The 
young  engineer,  for  example,  sent  to  examine  and  report  on 
soil  conditions  in  a  certain  locaUty,  must  write  his  report 
to  the  company;  unless  he  can  write  moderately  well,  the 
value  of  his  investigations  may  be  materially  impaired.  So, 
too,  the  assistant  advertising  manager  who  can  himself 
prepare  a  leaflet  descriptive  of  a  new  car,  or  the  credit  man 

163 


164  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

who  in  a  lucid  report  can  explain  certain  phenomena  appear- 
ing in  his  district — these  men  are  more  valuable  to  the 
company  and  hence  in  a  better  position  so  far  as  their  own 
advancement  is  concerned,  than  their  rivals  who  lack  this 
power.  The  student  may  feel  sure,  therefore,  that  no  time 
is  wasted  which  he  spends  in  endeavoring  to  secure  a  mastery 
of  these  larger  forms. 

238.  The  business  letter  is  of  course  the  type  of  writing 
with  which  the  student  of  this  book  is  likely  to  have  most  to 
do.  Because  of  its  exceptional  importance,  and  because 
the  composition  of  business  letters  demands  a  special  sort  of 
technique,  we  treat  the  subject  by  itself  in  the  next  chapter. 
In  the  present  chapter  we  confine  our  suggestions  to  other 
forms  of  business  writing.  To  make  these  suggestions  as 
definite  and  practical  as  possible,  let  us  assume  that  the 
student  has  been  asked  to  prepare  a  report  or  article  on  some 
matter  connected  with  business :  the  opportunities  for  a  new 
store  in  Fargo,  North  Dakota;  the  year's  record  of  a  selling 
force;  the  desirability  of  installing  a  profit-sharing  plan  in  a 
factory;  a  new  and  promising  method  of  settling  industrial 
disputes.     How  should  he  go  to  work? 

239.  Most  experienced  writers  would  say  that  his  task 
will  be  four-fold : 

First,  he  must  get  the  necessary  information. 

Second,  he  must  analyze  this  material,  rejecting  the  unim- 
portant items,  interpreting  the  significance  of  everything, 
and  grouping  together  all  related  facts. 

Third,  he  must  make  some  sort  of  outline  or  plan  for  the 
finished  report;  and 

Fourth,  on  the  basis  of  this  plan,  he  must  write  the  report 
itself. 

240.  Some  proficient  writers  will  at  once  point  out  that 
these  steps  must  necessarily  overlap;  that,  for  instance,  the 
process  of  analyzing  the  material  should  not  be  completed 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  165 

until  the  final  revision  of  the  whole  article  is  in  the  typist's 
or  printer's  hands.  But  for  the  large  majority  of  writers,  the 
process  will  conform  fairly  closely  to  that  outlined  in  the 
last  paragraph.  The  first  step  is  the  fundamental  prelimi- 
nary of  any  such  writing;  the  second  is  largely  a  process  of 
mental  classification;  the  third  involves  the  use  of  pencil 
and  paper,  and  generally  starts  after  the  analysis  has  at 
least  been  begun.  Hence  in  working  out  the  hypothetical 
problem,  we  shall  follow  this  order. 

I.     Gathering  the  Material. 

241.  The  first  thing  to  do,  then,  is  to  get  together  as 
much  pertinent  information  on  the  subject  as  can  be  used. 
And  here  at  once  one  realizes  that  the  method  will  differ 
somewhat  according  to  whether  the  writer  is  already  in 
possession  of  the  necessary  facts,  or  must  seek  for  them  in 
printed  sources. 

242.  Assume  for  the  time  being  that  the  writer  knows 
enough  about  his  subject  to  make  recourse  to  printed  sources 
of  information  unnecessary.  What  does  he  do?  He  makes  a 
mental  examination  or  inventory  of  his  own  knowledge;  he 
thinks  the  subject  over  from  one  point  of  view  and  another; 
he  selects  the  most  important  phase  of  the  question,  and 
decides  how  to  approach  it:  in  other  words,  he  proceeds 
almost  at  once  to  the  second  of  the  four  steps,  a  careful 
analysis  of  the  information  he  possesses. 

243.  In  making  this  analysis  it  will  be  extremely  helpful, 
especially  if  the  subject  is  a  complicated  one,  to  use  in  a 
modified  form  the  system  of  written  notes  described  below 
(paragraphs  248  ff .) .  If  one  will  take  the  trouble  to  jot  down 
on  a  separate  slip  of  paper  each  idea  or  bit  of  information  as 
it  occurs  to  one,  the  process  of  analysis  will  involve  little 
more  than  an  intelligent  sorting  of  the  slips  into  packs,  each 
of  which  will  contain  information  or  conclusions  regarding  one 


166  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

of  the  larger  aspects  of  the  subject.     The  writer  will  then  be 
in  a  position  to  make  his  outline  without  unnecessary  delay. 

244.  But  suppose  now  that  it  is  desirable  to  consult  what 
others  have  written  about  the  subject:  naturally,  the  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  discover  what  printed  material  exists.  If 
the  report  concerns  the  year's  accomplishment  of  a  selling 
force,  the  information  is  accessible  in  the  firm's  books.  But 
suppose  the  topic  is  the  desirability  of  establishing  some 
sort  of  profit-sharing  plan,  or  anything  else  on  which 
there  is  a  considerable  body  of  literature;  in  this  case  it 
will  almost  certainly  be  necessary  to  have  the  help  of  a 
good  library. 

245.  That  help  is  available  in  many  forms.  Most  large 
libraries  have  a  staff  of  reference  librarians  who  are  glad  to 
direct  investigators  to  the  best  available  material,  or  to 
furnish  them  with  bibliographies  and  reading  lists.  Again, 
the  card  catalogue  shows  what  books  and  pamphlets  dealing 
with  the  subject  are  on  the  shelves  of  that  particular  library. 
And  third,  in  all  libraries  are  some  or  all  of  the  various 
indexes  to  articles  published  in  magazines.  Of  these  perhaps 
the  most  useful  is  The  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature, 
in  which  the  articles  appearing  in  some  hundred  leading 
magazines  are  listed  alphabetically  under  the  name  of  both 
author  and  subject.  Thus,  on  the  question  of  profit-sharing, 
appear  in  the  Readers'  Guide  for  1918,  p.  415,  these  entries:^ 

Extent  of  profit-sharing  in  the  United  States;  its  bearing  on  indus- 
trial unrest.     B.  Emmet.     J.  Pol.  Econ.  25:  1019-33  D  '17. 

Fair  basis  of  profit-sharing.  G.  K.  Parsons.  Ind.  Management 
55:  140-4  F  '18. 

Human  Valuation.  G.  K.  Parsons.  Ind.  Management  55: 
399-401  My  '18.    See  also  Bonus  system;  Copartnership. 

The  Supplement  to  the  Readers^  Guide  deals  in  a  similar  way 
with  magazines  of  a  more  highly  specialized  sort,  the  scientific 

1  All  abbreviations  used  in  these  entries  are  listed  and  explained  on 
one  of  the  introductory  pages  of  the  Guide. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  167 

journals  that  represent  the  learned  professions  and  the  arts 
and  sciences.  Still  another  guide,  constructed  on  much  the 
same  plan  but  more  closely  related  to  the  world  of  business, 
is  The  Industrial  Arts  Index,  which  covers  engineering  and 
trade  periodicals.  The  help  which  this  work  would  afford 
the  man  interested  in  profit-sharing  may  be  illustrated  by  a 
glance  at  page  371  of  the  1918  volume: 

Can  profit-sharing  with  employees  be  successfully  worked  out? 
R.  H.  Ballard.    Am.  Gas  Eng.  J  107:  517-19  D  8  '17. 

Tested  profit-sharing  plan  of  the  Miller  lock  company.  D.  Wolf. 
Ind.  Management  J  6:  486-8  D  '18. 

Why  I  believe  in  profit-sharing.  H.  S.  Dennison.  Factory 
20: 424  Mr '18. 

The  Annual  Magazine  Subject  Index  treats  in  the  same  way 
a  large  number  of  foreign  and  somewhat  highly  specialized 
American  periodicals.  The  Business  Digest  and  Investment 
Weekly  offers  as  part  of  its  service  an  alphabetical  digest  of 
recent  articles,  and  brief  summaries  of  the  material  there 
treated.  Finally,  The  Book  Review  Digest  lists  and  abstracts 
current  books  on  a  large  variety  of  topics.  It,  too,  would 
prove  helpful.  Turning,  for  example,  to  the  subject  index 
at  the  back  of  the  volume  for  1918,  one  would  find  (p.  544) 
this  entry: 

PROFIT-SHARING 
Burritt,  A.  W.,  and  others.    Profit-sharing.     (My  '18) 

Then  under  the  name  of  the  principal  author,  A.  W. 
Burritt,  appears  on  p.  72  nearly  a  full  column  of  information 
about  the  book  itself,  including  quotations  from  the  more 
important  reviews. 

246.  Through  some  such  channels  as  these  the  investi- 
gator will  be  guided  to  the  information  he  seeks.  Assume 
now  that  he  has  collected  four  or  five  printed  books  and  a 
dozen  magazines,  all  dealing  with  the  matter  of  profit-shar- 
ing.    The  task  ahead  looks  formidable:  here  is  material 


168  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

enough  for  two  weeks  of  solid  reading.     How  can  he  do 
anything  worth  while  in  two  days? 

247.  Well,  one  should  always  remember  that  his  task  is 
to  consult,  not  necessarily  to  read,  these  documents.  The 
magazine  articles  offer  no  particular  difficulties;  five  minutes 
used  in  glancing  through  the  entire  article  will  often  save  an 
hour  that  might  be  wasted  through  exhaustive  reading  of 
what  proved  to  be  an  insignificant  paper.  In  the  case  of  a 
book,  the  problem  is  not  so  simple.  But  by  a  judicious  use 
of  the  table  of  contents  and  index  one  can  probably  eliminate 
certain  chapters  as  unnecessary,  and  by  treating  those  that 
remain  as  he  has  treated  the  magazine  articles,  he  can  save 
much  time.  One  should  consult  the  references,  then;  not 
necessarily  read  them  entire.  The  task  in  hand  is  to  extract 
pertinent  information,  not  to  read  everything  a  certain 
man  has  written. 

EXERCISE   1. 

By  making  use  of  the  catalogue  of  the  largest  library  accessible 
to  you  and  of  the  periodical  indexes  listed  in  paragraph  245,  con- 
struct a  list  of  not  fewer  than  seven  articles  and  books  relating  to 
one  of  the  following  topics.  In  recording  the  titles  observe  the 
directions  concerning  form  and  order  given  in  paragraphs  277  and 
278.     Make  your  notes  from  the  books  and  articles  themselves 

1.  Workshop  Councils  in  America. 

2.  Evening  and  Continuation  Schools. 

3.  The  Federal  Reserve  System. 

4.  The  Effects  of  the  War  on  Foreign  Exchange. 

5.  Recent  Proposals  for  the  Reorganization  of  the  Railroads. 

6.  Recent  Phases  of  the  Co-operative  Movement  in  America. 

7.  Scientific  Management. 

8.  Standardizing  the  Dollar. 

9.  Cost  Accounting. 

10.  Training  Employees. 

11.  Employment  Systems. 

12.  Factory  Management. 

13.  Farm  Management. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  169 

14.  German  Propaganda  during  the  Great  War. 

15.  Grafting  Fruit-trees. 

16.  School  Entertainments. 

17.  Athletics  in  the  High  School. 

18.  High  School  Fraternities. 

19.  The  Selective  Draft  Law  of  1917. 

20.  Self-government  in  Schools  and  Colleges. 

21.  Teachers'  Unions. 

248.  In  order  that  this  information  may  be  readily  avail- 
able when  it  is  time  to  write  the  paper,  it  will  be  worth 
while  to  use  some  rational  system  of  note-taking.  Merely 
to  write  down  on  a  large  sheet  of  paper  each  fact  or  opinion 
that  is  of  interest,  and  then,  when  the  first  sheet  is  full,  to 
start  a  second — such  a  method  is  an  inevitable  handicap.  It 
is  much  better  to  adopt  some  sort  of  ''loose-leaf'*  or  "card" 
system,  whereby  all  the  facts  dealing  with  one  particular 
phase  of  the  question  can  be  readily  grouped  together. 

249.  Concerning  this  matter  of  taking  notes  there  is  no 
need  for  dogmatism;  whoever  writes  at  all  frequently  will 
work  out  his  own  system.  But  a  few  suggestions,  based  on 
the  practice  of  experienced  investigators  in  all  fields,  may 
help  the  beginner  without  in  any  way  hampering  the  freedom 
of  the  more  accomplished  writer. 

250.  First  of  all,  one  should  be  systematic,  not  constantly 
changing  from  one  method  to  another.  Furthermore,  the 
notes  should  be  on  cards  or  slips  of  a  uniform  size.  Any 
stationer  will  cut  sheets  of  paper  to  what  appears  the  most 
practicable  size:  4x6  inches  is  very  generally  useful.  Again, 
it  is  important  to  use  a  separate  card  for  each  distinct  point 
or  fact.  Unless  one  is  scrupulous  in  attending  to  this  last 
matter,  he  sacrifices  much  of  the  value  of  the  "loose-leaf" 
system. 

251.  What  should  appear  on  the  cards?  First  of  all,  at 
the  top  of  the  card  there  should  be  some  sort  of  heading,  as 
a  guide  to  future  classification.     Whether  one  writes  the 


170  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

heading  before  making  the  note  proper,  or  leaves  it  until  the 
rest  of  the  card  is  filled,  makes  little  or  no  difference:  the 
important  thing  is  to  provide  each  note  with  a  catchword 
that  will  be  easily  intelligible  later  on.  The  heading  should 
not  be  too  inclusive;  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  not  be  so 
specific  as  to  apply  only  to  the  fact  noted  on  that  particular 
card,  instead  of  serving  as  a  label  for  a  group  of  cards.  Some- 
times it  will  be  useful  to  supply  more  than  one  alternative 
catchword.  Often,  too,  a  series  of  headings  in  descending 
order  of  generality  (as  on  the  sample  notes  given  in  para- 
graph 254)  will  aid  one  in  the  task  of  classification. 

252.  The  body  of  the  note  may  consist  of  a  direct  quota- 
tion from  the  source,  or  of  a  brief  analysis  or  summary.  For 
most  purposes  the  second  alternative  is  preferable;  it  necessi- 
tates more  thinking,  and  thus  advances  the  writer  further 
along  the  road  of  classification  and  analysis.  Occasionally, 
however,  a  direct  quotation  is  necessary.  In  this  case  the 
quotation  marks  must  always  appear.  In  either  case,  how- 
ever, each  particular  note  should  deal  with  only  one  point. 
If,  for  example,  a  paragraph  contains  two  facts,  both  of 
which  seem  pertinent,  it  will  be  better  to  make  two  notes 
on  it  than  one,  for  it  is  more  than  possible  that  these  facts 
will  be  classified  under  two  different  headings. 

253.  Finally — and  this  applies  whatever  one's  own  per- 
sonal modification  of  the  system  just  outlined  may  be — each 
card  must  contain  an  exact  reference  to  the  source  of  the  in- 
formation it  records.  Few  things  are  more  exasperating  to 
a  writer  than  to  find  a  pertinent  note,  perhaps  a  valuable 
tabulation,  with  no  indication  of  its  origin.  It  would  be 
foolish  to  make  these  identifying  references  too  elaborate; 
they  are  not  bibliographical  entries.  But  they  will  surely 
include  (1)  the  name  of  the  author;  (2)  enough  of  the  title 
to  make  identification  easy  and  certain;  and  (3)  a  reference 
to  volume  and  page.     If  the  source  is  a  magazine  article 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES         171 

there  is  usually  no  need  to  note  the  title  of  the  article;  the 
title  of  the  magazine,  together  with  a  reference  to  the  volume, 
the  year,  and  the  page,  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

254.  The  following  notes  have  the  features  just  defined, 
and  may  stand  as  typical  examples  of  the  way  the  system 
appears  in  practice: 

(1)  Quotation: 


Profit-sharing.     U. 

S.  Steel  Corporation.     No.  of  sub- 

scribers  and  amts. 

subscribed  between  1908  and  1913. 

A.  Williams,  Co-partnership  and  Profit-sharing,  p.  182: 

"Year 

Subscribers 

Shares  Preferred 

Shares  Common 

1908 

24,884 

30,621 

1909 

19,192 

18,000 

15,318 

1910 

17,444 

24,672 

1911 

26,363 

19,229 

29,119 

1912 

36,946 

30,619 

30,735 

1913 

36,119 

34,551 

25,793" 

(2)  Analysis: 


Profit-sharing.    U.  S.  Steel  Corporation.    Method  of  payment 
for  shares. 

A.  Williams,  Co-Partnership  and  profit-sharing,  p.  182: 

Payment  by  monthly  installments,  deducted  from  wages  or 
salaries,  in  no  case  to  exceed  25%  of  month's  wages  or  salaries. 
Three  years  allowed  a  man  to  pay  for  his  stock. 


172  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

EXERCISE  2. 

Bring  to  class  for  criticism  three  "quotation"  notes  and  three 
"analysis"  notes  taken  from  one  of  the  articles  or  books  examined 
for  Exercise  1  of  this  chapter  Supply  each  note  with  a  heading 
and  with  a  bibliographical  reference  according  to  the  models  shown 
in  paragraph  254. 

n.    Analyzing  the  Material. 

255.  Suppose  now  that  the  student  has  accumulated  all 
the  materials  for  his  article  or  report.  Some  of  them  are  his 
own  ideas  or  experiences;  others  are  facts  or  suggestions 
extracted  frpm  reading;  all  are  carefully  entered  on  cards. 
His  next  task  is  to  analyze  this  material  to  discover  its 
meaning  and  the  relation  of  its  parts. 

256.  The  first  step  is  to  sort  the  slips  as  one  would  a 
hand  of  cards;  to  arrange  them  in  packs,  each  containing 
notes  with  the  same  or  a  similar  heading.  At  first  there 
will  probably  be  a  large  number  of  such  packs.  Gradually, 
however,  more'  inclusive  groupings  will  seem  feasible,  and 
after  trying  various  combinations  and  orders,  one  will  reach 
a  point  where  it  is  possible  to  make  an  outline  for  the  pro- 
jected work. 

ni.    Making  the  Outline. 

257.  Of  the  value  of  an  outline  too  much  can  hardly  be 
said.  It  tests  the  analysis  of  the  material;  it  enables  one 
to  see  the  subject  as  a  whole,  in  its  proper  order  and  propor- 
tion; and  usually  it  serves  as  guide  inwriting.  ' 'Usually, ''  we 
say;  some  people  find  it  advisable  to  proceed  at  once  from 
the  classification  and  arrangement  of  their  notes  to  the  writ- 
ing of  a  first  rough  draft,  and  then  to  make  an  outline  as  a 
guide  to  revision  and  rewriting.  Here  again  one  should  not 
be  dogmatic;  one  man's  mind  works  best  one  way,  another's 
another.  It  is  probable  that  most  students  will  find  it 
better  to  make  a  complete  outline  before  doing  any  of  the 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  173 

actual  composition.  If,  however,  some  individual  is  of  the 
other  sort,  he  should  not  hesitate  to  use  his  own  method. 
But  let  him  be  sure  that  at  some  point  in  the  process  he 
makes  a  more  or  less  detailed  outline  as  a  check  upon  the 
structure  and  proportion  of  the  whole  work.  If  he  makes 
the  outline  before  beginning  to  write,  he  will  find  it  advisable 
not  to  carry  too  far  the  analysis  into  sub-points,  lest  the 
process  of  composition  lose  all  spontaneity  and  become  a 
mere  mechanical  matter  of  filling  in  the  outline.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  constructs  his  formal  outline  after  he  has 
written  a  rough  draft,  the  more  detailed  the  division  into 
points  and  sub-points,  the  more  useful  it  will  be  as  a  guide 
in  revision.  In  either  case,  however,  one  of  the  most  essential 
qualities  of  a  good  plan,  as  of  good  writing  in  general,  is 
simplicity;  no  matter  how  numerous  or  detailed  may  be  the 
sub-points,  the  main  headings  should  he  few  and  fundamental 
258.  The  commonest  form  of  an  outline— usually  the 
only  one  necessary— is  the  so-called  'Hopical  outline."^  A 
moment's  study  of  the  following  example  will  show  that  it  is 
simple  in  both  phrasing  and  form,  and  yet  that  it  includes 
all  the  ideas  or  topics  which  the  completed  paper  will  contain: 

Topical  Outline   for  Report   on  the  Cost    op   a    Firm's 

Letters.^ 
A.    Direct  Cost 

1.  Salaries 

a.  Dictator's  time  cost 

b.  Stenographer's  time  cost 

c.  File  clerk's,  mail  boy's,  and  messenger's  time 

d.  Mail  sorter's  time 

2.  Stationery 

a.  Letterheads 

b.  Envelopes 

c.  Special  printing 

d.  Carbon  paper 

8.  Carbon  copy  paper  for  files 
1  Reprinted  by  special  permission  from  System,  November,  1919,  p.  856. 


174  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

3.  Equipment  and  miscellaneous  supplies 

a.  Typewriter  upkeep 

b.  Ribbons  for  typewriter 

c.  Stenographer's  supplies 

d.  Phonographs  and  cylinders 

e.  Furniture 

f.  Special  office  and  mailing  appliances,  such  as 

scales,  seahng  machines,  and  the  hke 

4.  Stamps 

a.  Direct  postage  cost 

b.  Stamp-affixing  machine  cost 

5.  Waste 

a.  Returned  mail 

b.  Loss  of  stamps 

c.  Spoiled  stationery 

B.  Overhead  Cost 

1.  Direct  department  expense 

a.  Salaries  of  correspondence  officials 

b.  Incidental  department  expense 

2.  Indirect  or  house  expenses 

a.  Salaries  of  general  officers 

b.  Rent 

c.  Light  and  power 

d.  Fuel 

e.  Taxes 

f.  Insurance 

By  the  use  of  such  an  outline  one  can  see  at  a  glance  that 
the  finished  report  will  be  divided  into  two  large  parts,  the 
first  (A)  dealing  with  the  direct  cost,  and  the  second  (B)  with 
the  overhead  cost.  Furthermore,  the  large  section  (A)  is  in 
turn  composed  of  five  coordinate  smaller  ones — (1),  (2), 
(3),  (4),  and  (5) — in  each  of  which  one  item  of  the  direct 
cost  is  considered.  These  five  points  are  again  subdivided, 
the  smaller  sections  being  lettered  (a),  (b),  (c),  etc.  If  an 
outline  is  properly  constructed,  each  division,  of  whatever 
size,  will  equal  the  sum  of  all  its  sub-points;  thus  here,  divisions 
(A)  and  (B)  together  give  you  all  the  facts  about  the  cost  of 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  175 

the  letters;  divisions  (1)  and  (2)  under  (B)  state  the  whole 
case  for  overhead,  and  so  on.  Notice  too  that  the  writer  of 
this  outline  has  avoided  the  artificial  division  of  his  plan  into 
"Introduction,"  ''Body,"  and  ''Conclusion." 

259.  By  way  of  observing  how  such  an  outline  helps  in 
the  analysis  of  a  subject,  the  student  might  consider  point 
"A4b":  "Stamp-affixing  machine  cost."  It  is  a  fair 
question  whether  it  would  not  have  been  more  logical  to 
include  this  item  with  "A3f":  "Special  office  and  mailing 
appliances."  If  this  latter  course  had  been  chosen,  point 
4,  "Stamps,"  would  not  have  been  subdivided  into  (a)  and 
(b);  but  would  have  appeared  simply  as  "4.  Postage." 
It  is  illogical  and  misleading  to  start  a  series  (with  A,  I,  or 
any  other  character)  unless  there  are  to  be  at  least  two  units 
in  the  series:  an  object  or  idea  or  process  caimot  be  divided 
into  only  one  part.  When,  therefore,  one  is  tempted  to  make 
a  subdivision  with  only  one  part,  as,  for  instance,  thus, 

I 

A 
II 
A 
B, 

a  moment's  consideration  will  show  that  A=I,  and  should 
consequently  appear  as  I,  thus, 

I 
II 
A 
B. 

260.  To  sum  up:  a  good  topical  outline  is  an  excellent 
means  of  testing  and  improving  the  preliminary  analysis, 
as  well  as  a  useful  guide  in  the  process  of  composition.  The 
analysis  of  the  material  is  probably  adequate  if  (1)  in  the 
outline  the  sum  of  the  main  points  or  of  any  group  of  sub- 


176  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

points  equals  a  complete  and  satisfactory  treatment  of  that 
phase  of  the  whole  matter;  if  (2)  each  set  of  points  is  arranged 
according  to  a  single  principle  of  order — chronological,  spatial, 
cause  and  effect,  the  relative  importance  of  parts,  etc. — so 
that  there  is  no  overlapping;  and  if  (3)  the  outline  contains 
relatively  few  main  points  (usually  a  large  number  of  main 
divisions  betokens  a  failure  to  analyze  the  subject-matter 
into  its  fundamental  parts).  Good  form,  as  well  as  logic, 
requires,  too,  that  each  series  of  coordinate  points  or  sub- 
points  be  phrased  in  the  same  kind  of  grammatical  construc- 
tion: thus,  if  the  first  point  in  a  series  is  a  noun,  all  the 
remaining  points  should  be  nouns. 

261.  In  most  cases  a  topical  outline  will  be  a  sufficient 
guide.  If,  however,  one  is  engaged  in  a  long  or  complicated 
piece  of  writing,  it  may  be  useful  to  make  a  more  elaborate 
outline.  For  this  purpose  the  ''paragraph  outline"  and  the 
''complete-sentence  outline"  are  particularly  valuable. 

262.  A  paragraph  outline  consists  of  a  series  of  numbered 
sentences  or  short  groups  of  sentences,  each  of  which  is  the 
topic  sentence  of  a  paragraph  of  the  completed  article  or 
report.  The  value  of  such  an  outline  is  twofold:  (1)  it 
enables  one  to  settle  the  precise  proportion  of  treatment  and 
to  guard  against  too  elaborate  development  of  minor  matters; 
and  (2)  by  fixing  the  thought  in  advance  at  each  stage  of  the 
composition,  it  greatly  facilitates  the  actual  process  of 
writing. 

263.  If,  for  example,  it  were  desirable  to  make  a  para- 
graph outline  on  "The  Cost  of  a  Firm's  Letters,"  for  which  a 
topical  outline  has  been  given  in  paragraph  258,  it  would  be 
something  like  this: 

1.  There  is  both  a  direct  and  an  indirect  cost  to  be  reckoned 
with  in  estimating  the  total  expense  of  a  firm's  letters. 

2.  Under  the  head  of  direct  cost  come  salaries,  stationery, 
equipment,  stamps,  and  waste. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES         177 

3.  The  salary  charge  includes  the  time  of  the  dictator,  stenog- 
rapher, file  clerk,  mail  sorter,  etc. 

4.  The    stationery    charge  includes    letterheads,   envelopes, 
printing,  carbon  paper,  and  copy  paper. 

5.  The  equipment  charge  includes  typewriter  upkeep  and  sup- 
pHes,  phonographs,  furniture,  and  special  office  apphances. 

6.  With  the  stamp  charge  must  be  included  the  cost  of  postage 
and  of  stamp-affixing  machines. 

7.  Waste  includes  returned  mail,  lost  stamps,  and  spoiled 
stationery. 

8.  The  overhead  cost  embraces  certain  direct  departmental 
expenses  and  certain  indirect  or  house  expenses. 

9.  The  direct  departmental  expense  includes  salaries  of  cor- 
respondence officials  and  incidental  department  expenses.  ^ 

10.  Indirect  expenses  include  the  proper  share  of  salaries,  rent, 
light,  power,  fuel,  taxes,  and  insurance. 

Of  course  in  the  case  of  this  particular  subject  the  topical 
outline  is  so  clear  and  ample  that  a  paragraph  outline  would 
hardly  be  necessary.  In  more  complex  investigations, 
where  each  main  point  of  the  topical  outline  might  have  to 
be  expanded  into  several  paragraphs,  the  second  form  of 
outline  would  be  a  great  aid  to  the  writer. 

264.  Still  a  third  sort  of  outline,  the  "Complete-sentence 
Outline,"  furnishes  admirable  training  for  the  student,  and 
enables  him  still  more  accurately  to  test  the  analysis  and 
interrelations  of  his  material.  In  this  third  form  the  material 
for  the  report  already  outlined  might  appear  thus: 

The  cost  of  a  firm's  letters  is  both  direct  and  indirect: 

A.    The  direct  cost  includes  the  charges  for 
1.    Salaries,  which  embrace 

a.  the  dictator's  time  cost, 

b.  the  stenographer's  time  cost, 

c.  the  time  cost  of  the  file  clerk,  mail  boy,  etc., 

d.  the  mail  sorter's  time  cost. 


178  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

2.  Stationery,  which  embraces 

a.  letterheads, 

b.  envelopes, 

c.  special  printing, 

d.  carbon  paper, 

e.  carbon  copy  paper. 

3.  Equipment  and  miscellaneous  supplies,  which  include 

a.  typewriter  upkeep, 

b.  ribbons  for  typewriter, 

c.  stenographer's  supplies, 

d.  phonographs  and  cylinders, 

e.  furniture, 

f .  special  office  appliances. 

4.  Stamps,  which  include 

a.  direct  postage  cost, 

b.  stamp-affixing  machines. 

5.  Waste,  under  which  may  be  grouped 

a.  returned  mail, 

b.  lost  stamps, 

c.  spoiled  stationery. 

B.    The  indirect  cost  includes  the  charges  for 

1.  Direct  departmental  expense,  in  which  must  be  included 

a.  salaries  of  correspondence  officials, 

b.  incidental  departmental  expenses. 

2.  Indirect  or  house  expenses,  which  include  an  appropriate 

share  of 

a.  salaries  of  general  officers, 

b.  rent, 

c.  light  and  power, 

d.  fuel, 

e.  taxes 

f.  insurance. 

Such  an  outline  is  composed,  as  its  name  indicates,  of  com- 
plete sentences.  Each  large  section  (A  or  B),  like  the  head- 
ing of  the  whole  report,  is  a  complete  grammatical  unit,  and 
might  be  arranged  on  a  page  as  a  sentence,  thus:     "The 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  179 

direct  cost  includes  the  charges  for  (1)  salaries,  which  em- 
brace (a)  the  dictator's  time  cost,  (b)  the  stenographer's 
time  cost,  etc."  Such  an  outline,  because  it  compels  the 
student  to  think  carefully  about  the  relations  between  his 
points,  is  frequently  an  aid  either  in  planning  or  in  revision. 

EXERCISE  3. 

1.  Take  one  of  your  compositions  written  during  the  first  part 
of  the  course,  make  a  new  and  detailed  outline  of  it,  rearranging 
the  points,  if  necessary,  and  supplying  new  material  essential  to  an 
adequate  presentation  of  the  subject,  and  rewrite  the  essay  in  the 
light  of  the  fresh  outline. 

2.  Make  a  careful  topical  or  complete  sentence  outline  of  one  of 
the  following  subjects: 

1.  The  Use  of  a  Library  Card-catalogue. 

2.  The  Gymnasium  Facilities  of  your  School  (for  a  report 

to  the  School  Board). 

3.  The  Organization  of  a  Local  Industry  or  Business. 

4.  The  High  School  FootbaU  Team. 

5.  The  Methods  of  Instruction  in  one  of  your  Courses. 

3.  Make  a  paragraph  outline  of  Chapter  VI  of  this  book.  Do 
not  be  content  with  merely  copying  the  first  sentence  of  each  para- 
graph; try  to  formulate  the  whole  point  of  the  paragraph  in  a  sen- 
tence preferably  of  your  own  composition. 

4.  Reconstruct  the  following  badly  arranged  topical  outline: 

SECRET  SOCIETIES  IN mOH   SCHOOL 

I.   Introduction. 

A.  Societies  already  here. 

B.  Snobbishness  cultivated.  # 

C.  Extravagance  promoted. 

D.  Possibility  of  co-operation. 

II.  Body. 

A.  Undesirable  features. 

1.  Emphasis  on  social  diversion. 

2.  Opposition  of  school  board. 

a.  Reasons  for  this. 


180  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

B.  Desirable  features. 

1.  Friendships  formed. 

2.  Stimulation  of  school  spirit. 

3.  Popularity  among  the  students. 

III.   Conclusion:  the  question  of  secret  societies  should  be  talked 
over  seriously  by  students,  teachers,  and  school  board. 

5.  Make  a  complete-sentence  outline  of  the  composition  printed  in 
Exercise  1  of  Chapter  VI  (pp.  141-44). 

IV.    Writing  the  Article  or  Report. 

265.  Once  the  material  for  the  paper  is  collected,  analyzed, 
and  outlined,  the  actual  process  of  composition  is  in  the  main 
simply  a  matter  of  applying  skillfully  the  suggestions  about 
words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs  contained  in  the  preceding 
chapters.  There  are,  however,  a  few  points  not  already 
discussed  which  it  will  be  well  for  the  student  to  bear  in  mind. 

266.  One  of  these  has  to  do  with  the  length  of  the  para- 
graphs. This  is  a  matter  which  cannot  be  arbitrarily  settled 
in  advance;  for  though  division  into  paragraphs  is  deter- 
mined in  large  part  by  the  logical  divisions  of  the  material, 
it  is  dependent  also  upon  considerations  of  emphasis  and 
attention.  Even  when  the  logic  of  the  case  seems  to  demand 
it,  an  unusually  long  paragraph  fatigues  a  reader.  Attention 
is  a  fluctuating  element;  it  is  not  good  sense  to  ask  a  reader 
to  keep  his  attention  unduly  long  on  any  one  point. 

267.  Just  what  ''unduly  long"  means  will  depend  upon 
the  material  one  is  using  and  the  audience  for  which  he  is 
writing.  Some  sorts  of  exposition,  in  which  the  reasoning 
is  not  too  close,  permit  of  fairly  long  paragraphs.  At  other 
times,  it  may  be  desirable  to  break  up  one's  matter  into  short 
paragraphs,  each  of  which  the  reader  can  readily  grasp  as  a 
unit.  The  desire,  too,  to  emphasize  a  point  or  a  transition 
may  lead  one  to  separate  it  from  its  immediate  context  and 
to  treat  it  by  itself  in  a  short  paragraph.    These  are,  of 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES         181 

course,  merely  general  hints;  in  practise  a  writer  must  use 
his  own  good  judgment,  with  perhaps  a  little  leaning  to 
charity. 

268.  One  can  also  help  the  reader  through  the  use  of 
clear  and  expHcit  connecting  links  between  paragraphs.  Of 
course,  if  the  paragraphs  follow  one  another  in  clear  and 
logical  order,  an  attentive  reader  will  probably  follow  the 
thought  without  undue  difficulty.  But  even  so,  it  is  well  to 
unite  the  different  sections  by  means  of  connecting  phrases, 
and  particularly  to  indicate  changes  in  the  direction  of 
the  reasoning,  or  the  beginning  of  another  larger  unit  of 
thought. 

269.  For  this  purpose  the  devices  suggested  m  paragraphs 
222-224  are  useful.  Connective  words,  such  as  second, 
third,  again,  moreover,  on  the  other  hand;  the  simple  trick  of 
repeating  in  the  first  sentence  of  one  paragraph  a  word  or 
phrase  or  idea  prominent  in  the  last  sentence  of  the  preceding; 
the  use  of  expressions  like  To  follow  the  argument  one  step 
further.  The  third  part  of  our  problem,  or  To  sum  up:  such 
methods  of  indicating  the  logical  structure  of  the  whole 
article  and  of  knitting  its  parts  together  are  practised  by 
most  good  writers. 

270.  As  a  further  aid  to  securing  this  clearness,  many 
writers  adopt  the  practice  of  breaking  up  their  text  into 
sections  numbered  by  Roman  numerals  set  in  the  middle  of 
the  page  and  sometimes  provided  with  sub-titles  (as  in  most 
of  the  chapters  of  this  book).  Each  of  the  sections  thus 
formed  will  correspond  to  one  of  the  main  points  in  the 
topical  outline. 

271.  Again,  the  use  of  a  brief,  carefully  phrased  introduc- 
tory paragraph  or  section,  forecasting  the  gist  and  organiza- 
tion of  the  whole  article  will  make  it  difficult  for  the  reader 
to  lose  track  of  the  argument.  Similarly,  a  concluding 
paragraph  or  section,  summing  up  the  whole  exposition, 


182  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

clinching  the  nail  after  it  has  been  driven  home,  is  almost 
always  useful. 

272.  Some  writers,  it  is  true,  need  to  be  warned  against 
unduly  long  or  irrelevant  introductions  or  conclusions.  It  is 
a  poor  use  of  time  to  develop  an  argument  extensively  in  the 
first  pages,  and  then,  in  the  body  of  the  paper,  to  go  over  the 
same  ground  again  in  only  slightly  more  detail.  But  the 
writer  who  makes  his  introductions  brief,  precise,  pungent, 
and  as  stimulating  as  possible,  will  be  well  repaid  for  the 
labor  they  cost  him. 

273.  As  an  additional  aid  to  the  reader,  if  the^  paper  is 
to  cover  more  than  a  few  pages,  it  should  contain  a  table 
of  contents,  and,  if  possible,  an  index.  The  former  will 
make  it  easy  for  the  reader  to  get  a  clear  view  of  what  is 
to  follow;  the  latter  will  facihtate  the  work  of  anyone  who 
may  ever  care  to  refer  to  the  work  for  information  about 
any  particular  point.  Whenever,  too,  one  has  made  use  of 
a  considerable  body  of  printed  material,  the  paper  should  be 
provided  with  footnotes  and  perhaps  a  bibliography.  These 
put  the  reader  in  a  position  to  verify  important  statements, 
and  to  increase  his  knowledge  of  the  subject  through  addi- 
tional reading.  (Full  directions  for  the  preparation  of 
footnotes  and  bibliographies  will  be  found  in  the  last  section 
of  this  chapter.) 

274.  One  should  never  forget  that  the  principles  of 
Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis  apply  as  surely  to  whole 
compositions  as  to  paragraphs  or  sentences.  To  treat  only 
one  main  idea  in  one  paper,  and  to  treat  that  idea  adequately; 
to  arrange  the  different  parts  of  the  exposition  in  the  best 
possible  order;  to  accord  to  the  most  important  phases  of  the 
subject  the  most  emphatic  development,  and  to  give  them 
the  most  prominent  position:  these  are  only  matters  of 
common  sense,  which  every  one  will  appreciate  as  essentials 
of  effective  writing. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  183 

275.  And,  finally,  the  student  should  remember  that 
writing  is  an  art,  and  that  in  all  arts  proportion  is  more  than 
a  desirability;  it  is  a  fundamental  necessity.  The  miniature 
on  a  piece  of  ivory,  the  fresco  on  the  ceiling  of  a  cathedral, 
the  cathedral  itself,  like  a  great  piece  of  music  or  the  tragedy 
of  Hamlet,  all  depend  in  a  large  measure  for  their  beauty 
upon  the  perfect  proportion  that  exists  between  all  their 
parts,  the  balance,  the  harmony,  which  lifts  them  into  the 
realm  of  true  and  enduring  art.  A  business  man's  report 
on  profit-sharing  must  differ  in  most  respects  from  a  Shake- 
spearean play;  but  because  the  principles  of  aesthetics,  like 
those  of  rhetoric,  are  founded  upon  the  desires  and  experience 
of  the  human  race,  the  same  qualities  which  ennoble  the 
tragedy  will  make  the  report  effective. 

EXERCISE  4. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  connective  or  transitional  expressions 
used  in  one  of  the  articles  or  chapters  examined  for  Exercise  1  of  this 
chapter.  If  you  think  that  the  connection  of  the  thought  between 
paragraphs  could  be  improved  in  any  place,  note  your  suggestion, 
together  with  the  passage  as  it  stands  in  the  article,  on  a  separate 
sheet  of  paper. 

2.  In  the  light  of  the  suggestions  in  paragraphs  271  and  272, 
write  a  criticism  of  the  Introductions  and  Conclusions  of  two  articles 
examined  for  the  same  Exercise. 

3.  Make  a  detailed  Table  of  Contents  of  one  of  these  articles, 
indicating  the  page  references  for  each  point.  For  the  proper  form 
see  the  Table  of  Contents  of  this  book. 

4.  Rewrite  one  of  your  earlier  themes,  paying  special  attention 
to  introduction,  conclusion,  and  transitions  between  paragraphs. 

V.    Bibliographies  and  Footnotes. 
A.  Bibliographies. 

276.  A  bibliography  is  a  list  of  books,  articles,  and 
pamphlets,  arranged  according  to  some  orderly  principle. 
In  preparing  any  sort  of  a  bibliography  one  has  to  consider- 


184  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

two  problems — the  composition  of  the  separate  descriptions, 
and  the  organization  of  these  descriptions  into  the  completed 
bibliography. 

277.  What  elements  should  enter  into  a  bibliographical 
description  of  a  book  or  magazine  article?  How  should 
these  elements  be  arranged  and  punctuated?  The  best 
way  to  answer  these  questions  is  to  consider  a  number  of 
typical  descriptions.  Here  are  two  which  will  illustrate  the 
best  usage  of  the  present  day: 

Cole,  G.  D.  H.  Self-government  in  Industry.  Third  Edition. 
London,  G.  Bell  and  Sons,  1918. 

Cole,  G.  D.  H.  "The  Coal  Question  in  Great  Britain."  In 
The  New  Republic,  vol.  xx,  September  10,  1919,  pp.  171-173. 

The  first  of  these  items  describes  a  book,  the  second  a  maga- 
zine article.  The  differences  in  form  due  to  this  fact  are 
mainly  matters  of  punctuation :  the  titles  of  the  book  and  of 
the  magazine  in  which  the  article  appeared  are  printed  in 
italics  (indicated  by  one  underline  in  manuscript),  whereas 
the  title  of  the  article  is  enclosed  by  quotation  marks  (see 
paragraph  74,  above).  The  likenesses  between  the  two 
descriptions  are  apparent.  Each  one  begins  with  the  name 
of  the  author,  last  name  first,  then  initials,  followed  by  a 
period.  Then  comes  the  title,  quoted  from  the  title-page 
(not  the  cover)  of  the  book,  or  from  the  beginning  of  the 
article;  this  likewise  is  followed  by  a  period.  In  the  third 
place  we  have  what  may  be  called  the  ''facts  of  publica- 
tion." In  the  case  of  a  book  these  consist  of  the  following 
details,  which  should  ordinarily  be  arranged  in  the  order 
named:  the  place  of  publication,  the  name  of  the  pubHsher, 
and  the  date.  Note  that  commas  set  off  the  last  three 
of  these  elements,  and  that  the  whole  description  ends 
with  a  period.  In  the  case  of  an  article,  the  ''facts  of 
publication"  consist  of  the  name  of  the  magazine  or  other 
publication  in  which  the  article  is  printed,  the  number  of  the 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  185 

volume  (expressed  in  Roman  numerals),  the  date  (usually 
the  year  date  is  sufficient),  and  the  pages  covered  by  the 
article  (expressed  in  Arabic  numerals). ^  All  of  these  details 
are  separated  by  commas.  Every  good  bibliographical 
description  will  contain  these  elements,  arranged  in  the 
general  order  indicated:  (1)  name  of  author,  (2)  title,  (3) 
facts  of  publication.  Sometimes  bibliographers  add  other 
information — the  number  of  pages  in  a  book,  its  format 
(octavo,  quarto,  etc.),  and  the  like — but  there  is  no  need  to 
worry  about  these  niceties  in  the  bibliography  of  a  business 
article  or  pamphlet. 

278.  How  should  the  various  items  of  a  bibliography  be 
arranged?  A  number  of  orders  are  theoretically  possible — 
the  alphabetical,  the  chronological,  the  logical,  etc. — ,  but 
for  ordinary  purposes  the  best  is  the  alphabetical.  If  one 
has  noted  on  cards  the  descriptions  of  the  books  or  articles 
which  have  been  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  the  paper, 
it  will  be  an  easy  matter  to  arrange  them  according  to  the 
initial  letter  of  the  author's  last  name,  or,  if  the  work  is 
anonymous,  according  to  the  first  important  word  of  the 
title. 

EXERCISE  6. 

Prepare  the  bibliography  for  an  article  in  writing  which  you 
assume  that  you  consulted  the  following  items  (most  of  which  are 
imaginary) .    Be  careful  to  use  the  form  described  in  paragraph  277 : 

1.  A  book  called  "Baseball  as  it  is  Played,"  written  by  John 
Smith,  and  published  in  New  York  in  1916. 

2.  An  article  by  George  Brown,  in  the  magazine  "  The  American 
Boy,"  for  November,  1918,  called  "How  I  Learned  to  Pitch." 

3.  An  editorial  in  "The  Outlook"  of  June  9,  1916,  entitled 
"Baseball  Again." 

iJn  both  bibliographies  and  footnotes,  it  is  customary  to  omit  the 
abbreviations  "vol."  and  "p."  or  "pp."  when  both  volume  and  page 
numbers  are  given;  thus:  The  New  Republic,  xx,  171-173.  When  there 
is  no  volume  number,  "p."  or  "pp."  should  always  be  inserted. 


186  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

4.  Chapter  V,  "  Games  for  Boys, "  in  the  annual  report  for  1914 
of  John  Doe,  Superintendent  of  Playgrounds  in  Chicago. 

5.  An  article  ''Baseball,"  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Brittanica, 
volume  3,  eleventh  edition,  pubHshed  at  Cambridge,  England,  and 
New  York,  in  1910. 

6.  A  book  by  A.  R.  Thompson,  published  in  Chicago  in  1910, 
called  "Practical  Baseball." 

7.  An  article  in  Scribner's  Magazine  for  July,  1919,  called 
"Baseball  after  the  War,"  by  A.  B.  Johnson. 

B.  Footnotes. 

279.  The  purpose  of  footnotes  is  to  enable  a  reader  to 
verify  statements  by  following  them  to  the  source  upon 
which  they  were  based.  Whenever,  therefore,  in  a  paper 
which  represents  research  of  any  kind,  one  makes  important 
statements  which  rest  for  their  proof  upon  some  other 
person's  testimony,  one  should  provide  the  statements  with 
exact  footnote  references  to  that  testimony.  The  reader  is 
thus  put  in  a  position  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  writer's 
conclusions,  and,  if  he  chooses,  to  extend  his  knowledge  of 
the  subject  by  consulting  more  specialized  treatments  of  it. 

280.  In  order  to  serve  this  purpose  effectively,  footnotes 
should  be  brief,  yet  exact  and  clear.  They  should  include 
enough  to  enable  a  reader  to  find  with  a  minimum  of  time 
and  trouble  the  precise  passage  in  a  source  upon  which  a 
particular  statement  in  the  text  was  based.  Exactly  what  is 
meant  by  ''enough"  in  this  connection  depends  somewhat 
upon  whether  the  article  is  accompanied  by  a  formal  bibliog- 
raphy; obviously,  if  there  is  a  bibliography,  the  footnotes 
may  be  more  condensed  than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 

281.  Assume  first  that  there  is  no  bibliography.  What 
should  each  footnote  include,  and  how  should  the  various 
elements  which  compose  it  be  arranged?  The  answer  is 
that  it  should  include  in  general  what  a  bibliographical 
description  should  include   (see  paragraph   277),   and  be 


THE  PREPARATION  OF   ARTICLES         187 

arranged  in  the  same  order,  with  certain  modifications  in 
the  punctuation,  etc.;  and  in  addition  should  be  provided 
with  a  reference  to  the  exact  page  or  pages  from  which  the 
material  was  taken.  Compare,  for  example,  the  following 
footnote  references  with  the  bibliographical  descriptions  of 
the  same  works  given  in  paragraph  277 : 

iCole,  G.  D.  H.,  "The  Coal  Question  in  Great  Britain,''  New 
Republic,  Sept.  10,  1919,  pp.  172-3. 

2  Cole,  D.  G.  H.,  Self-government  in  Industry,  London,  1918,  p. 
307. 

The  only  differences  are  that  the  "facts  of  publication"  are 
somewhat  condensed  in  the  footnote,  that  the  reference  ends 
with  a  precise  indication  of  pages,  and  that  the  various  ele- 
ments are  separated  by  commas,  not  periods. 

282.  Of  course,  in  all  references  to  a  particular  book  after 
the  first  mention  of  it,  one  will  naturally  abbreviate  still 
further.  Thus,  subsequent  references  to  the  first  work  of 
Cole  mentioned  above  might  take  either  of  the  following 
forms: 

^  Ibid.,  p.  309.  (Note  that  ibid. — Latin  ibidem,  "  in  the  same 
place" — stands  for  all  that  is  repeated  from  an  immediately  pre- 
ceding footnote  reference.) 

^See  Cole,  op.  cit.  p.  311.  (op.  cit. — Latir.  opere  citato,  "in  the 
work  mentioned" — refers  to  the  work  by  Cole  already  mentioned 
in  the  text  or  preceding  notes.  Such  a  reference  is  of  course  im- 
proper if  more  than  on    work  by  the  author  is  cited  in  the  article.) 

283.  If,  now,  as  will  usually  be  the  case,  the  article  is 
provided  with  a  bibliography,  the  footnotes  may  be  still 
simpler.     Such  entries  as  these  would  be  entirely  adequate: 

(^)  Cole,  Self-government,  p.  311. 

(2)  Cole,  "The  Coal  Question,"  pp.  172-73. 

(^)  Smith,  Recent  Investigations,  p.  426. 

C)  Smith,  "Report  A,"  pp.  184-85. 

(^)  Jones,  p.  28. 

C)  Brown,  p.  92. 


188  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

The  entries  ^' Jones"  and  "Brown"  include  no  title;  in  these 
cases  the  assumption  is  that  only  one  article  by  Jones  and 
only  one  by  Brown  appear  in  the  bibliography.  In  the 
cases  of  the  works  by  Cole  and  Smith  more  complete  identifi- 
cation is  necessary,  as  each  name  appears  more  than  once  in 
the  bibliography. 

284.  Here  again  the  abbreviation  "Ihid."  may  be  used 
to  refer  to  an  immediately  preceding  note  in  which  the  full 
title,  or  designating  catch-word,  appears.     Thus: 

(^)  Cole,  Self-government,  pp.  310-11. 

(2)  Ibid,,  p.  97. 

(3)  Ibid. 

285.  Notes  may  be  numbered  consecutively  throughout 
the  entire  article;  but  if  there  are  many  of  them,  it  will  be 
better  to  begin  a  new  series  for  each  new  page.  In  any  case, 
be  sure  to  put  the  reference  figures  (1),  (2),  (3),  etc.,  at  the 
end  of  the  sentences  or  quotations  to  which  they  refer.  Avoid 
the  old-fashioned  use  of  asterisks  and  daggers. 

EXERCISE  6. 

On  one  of  the  following  subjects,  or  on  one  of  those  listed  in 
Exercise  1  of  this  chapter,  prepare  an  article  or  report  of  between 
2000  and  3000  words,  provided  with  either  a  topical  outline  or  a 
detailed  table  of  contents,  with  a  bibliography  of  the  material 
consulted,  and  with  footnote  references  to  the  precise  sources  of  all 
facts  or  conclusions  taken  from  other  writers.  Arrange  the  parts 
of  the  composition  as  follows:  (1)  Outline  or  Table  of  Contents,  (2) 
Text  with  footnotes,  (3)  Bibliography.  Some  of  the  subjects  will 
obviously  need  limitation  before  they  can  be  treated  effectively 
within  the  suggested  number  of  words. 

1.  Office  Organization  in  Modern  Business. 

2.  City  Planning. 

3.  Extending  Credit  to  Farmers. 

4.  Devices  for  Reducing  Industrial  Accidents. 

5.  New  Methods  of  Selecting  Personnel  in  Business  Houses. 

6.  The  Work  of  an  Industrial  Engineer. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  ARTICLES  189 

7.  Giving  Employees  Representation  on  Management. 

8.  The  Work  of  the  Government  Bm-eau  of  Standards. 

9.  The  Community  Center. 

10.  Farm  Bureau  in  (lUinois,  Iowa,  etc.). 

11.  Forest  Conservation. 

12.  The  Federal  Reserve  Bank. 

13.  The  Defense  of  Verdun. 

14.  The  Organization  of  the  "Irish  Repubhc." 

15.  The  Work  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Standards. 

16.  Making  Moving  Pictures. 

17.  The  United  States  Forestry  Bureau. 

18.  The  Canadian  Mounted  Police. 

19.  The  State  Constabulary  in  (Pennsylvania,  New  York,  etc.). 

20.  The  Work  of  a  Public  Library. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE. 
I.    Business  Letters. 

286.  No  form  of  writing  is  so  important  in  the  business 
world  as  the  letter.  By  letter  one  handles  routine  matters 
like  asking  for  information  or  applying  for  a  position;  by 
letter  one  places  orders;  by  letter  one  determines  credit 
ratings;  by  letter  one  adjusts  difficulties;  by  letter  one  collects 
bills ;  by  letter  one  sells  goods.  The  letter  is  the  chief  medium 
for  the  transaction  of  modern  business. 
►  287.  If  a  man's  letters  appeal  to  his  correspondents,  he 
will  find  this  appeal  reflected  in  the  amount  of  his  sales.  If 
they  are  stiff,  wordy,  tactless,  they  will  do  no  good.  Not 
long  ago  a  business  man  sent  out  a  thousand  sales  letters 
in  the  hope  of  creating  a  market  for  a  new  article,  but  re- 
ceived only  two  replies.  His  conclusion  was,  "You  can't  do 
business  by  mail."  But  when  he  showed  his  letter  to  an 
expert  correspondence  critic,  the  adviser  pointed  out  that 
the  letter  he  had  written  was  one  which  would  repel  rather 
than  attract  a  customer.  When  it  was  revised  and  sent  out 
a  second  time,  it  brought  in  over  three  hundred  answers. 

288.  This  chapter  is  not  an  exhaustive  treatment  of 
business  correspondence.  So  large,  indeed,  is  the  subject, 
that  even  a  comparatively  inclusive  treatment  would  be 
possible  only  in  a  series  of  volumes.  The  aim  is  to  explain 
the  general  principles  of  all  successful  business  letters,  and  to 
provide  a  few  illustrations  of  their  successful  application  to 
business  problems. 

289.  Five  cardinal  principles  underlie  all  good  business 
letters.    They  are,  expressed  briefly,  (A)  good  form;  (B)  the 

190 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE     191 

''you-attitude";  (C)  personal  style;  (D)  clearness;  and  (E) 
"Every  letter  a  sales-letter. '^ 

A.   Good  Form. 

290.  Few  things  are  more  essential  for  any  business  house 
than  good  form  in  its  letters.  It  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  a  letter  which  bears  the  name  of  a  firm, 
which  represents  that  firm  to  the  correspondent,  should  make 
the  best  possible  impression  upon  the  person  who  receives  it. 

291.  Concerning  stock  and  sizes  of  envelopes,  only  a  few 
suggestions  are  necessary.  The  government  stamped  en- 
velope gives  probably  the  best  value  in  stock  that  can  be 
secured  anywhere,  and  the  government  will  print  an  in- 
dividual "return  card"  free  of  charge.  But  the  stock  used 
in  these  envelopes  is  hard  to  duplicate;  most  houses  accord- 
ingly prefer  to  furnish  their  own,  so  that  it  may  match  pre- 
cisely the  letter  paper. 

292.  In  this  latter  case,  the  best  stock  is  one  that  is  un- 
ostentatious in  color,  and  made  up  in  the  ordinary  sizes 
(33^  X  634  or  ZYs  X  634  inches).  Conservatism  in  these 
matters  is  the  safest  rule.  Though  pink  or  blue  envelopes 
attract  the  eye  momentarily,  and  unusual  sizes  may  produce 
an  effect  of  novelty,  it  is  generally  wiser  to  choose  a  white 
stock  of  the  ordinary  size.  Never  use  ruled  paper,  in  either 
business  or  social  correspondence. 

293.  The  address  on  the  envelope,  whether  it  be  written 
by  hand  or  typed,  usually  takes  one  of  the  two  following 
forms.     Of  the  two,'  the  first  is  more  generally  in  favor: 


Mr.  J.  P.  Doe, 

25  Adama  Street, 
Chicago, 

Illinois. 

Mr.  J.  P.  Doe, 
25  Adams  Street, 
Chicago, 
Illinois. 


192  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

294.  The  address  need  have  no  punctuation  marks  at  the 
ends  of  the  lines;  or  it  may  have  commas  after  all  but  the 
last,  which  is  then  closed  by  a  period.  Some  firms  omit  all 
points,  even  after  abbreviations  and  initials,  and  print  the 
address  thus : 

Mr  J  P  Doe  * 

,  25  Adams  St 

Chicago 

Illinois 

This  completely  "open*'  style  is  not  yet  in  general  favor, 
although  it  has  the  advantage  of  saving  the  time  of  the  typist. 

295.  Though  the  accepted  abbreviations  for  the  names 
of  the  states  are  usually  understood  (see  above,  paragraph 
26),  careful  firms  insist  that  they  be  not  used.  The  Post 
Office  Department  recommends  this  usage  as  safer  for  all 
concerned. 

296.  The  "return  card"  should  always  be  printed  in  the 
upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  envelope.  The  postal  authori- 
ties discountenance  placing  it  on  the  back  of  the  envelope, 
becau'se  of  the  time  wasted  in  reading  it.  The  simpler 
the  card  the  better.  It  should  normally  be  nothing  more 
than  the  following: 

AFTEB  3   DAYS,   RETURN   TO 
THE   STATE   BANK  AND   TRUST   COMPANY 
AUSTIN,   TEXAS. 

Even  on  other  than  first-class  mail  such  elaborate  cards  as 
the  following  are  usually  unnecessary:  "To  the  Post- 
master:   If  this  package  remains  uncalled  for,  notify , 

who  will  send  postage  for  its  return." 

297.  After  the  envelope,  the  next  thing  that  attracts  at- 
tention is,  of  course,  the  letter.  Obviously,  a  good  grade  of 
paper  contributes  to  the  appearance,  and  hence  to  the  sales- 
value,  of  all  correspondence.  There  is  no  need  to  use  expen- 
sive bond  paper,  but  if  a  few  dollars  will  make  the  difference 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    193 

between  a  stock  that  takes  ink  well,  is  substantial  and  firm 
to  the  touch,  and  a  paper  that  lacks  these  qualities,  spend 
the  money.  White  is  the  best  color,  though  light  shades  of 
gray,  brown,  or  blue  are  sometimes  used. 

298.  The  letter-head — the  name  and  address  of  the  firm, 
and  sometimes  other  information,  such  as  the  names  of  the 
ofiicers — deserves  special  attention.  It  saves  the  time  of  the 
typist,  and  may  have  considerable  advertising  value.  Hence 
it  should  be  well  planned,  and  carefully  printed  or  engraved. 

299.  Many  letter-heads  include  half-tone  cuts  of  the 
firm's  buildings,  and  occasionally  pictures  of  the  goods 
manufactured.  Such  embellishments  are  seldom  of  any 
positive  value.  They  certainly  win  little  favor  with  ex- 
perienced men  of  affairs.  The  best  rule  here,  as  in  all 
matters  of  form,  is  to  be  simple  and  unostentatious. 

300.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  letter-head 
contain  a  dotted  or  solid  line  for  the  date.  It  is  difficult  for 
the  typist  to  put  the  date  exactly  where  it  should  be;  more- 
over, the  presence  of  such  a  printed  line  usually  throws  the 
whole  letter-head  out  of  balance.  The  practise  of  printing 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sheet  such  statements  as  "Address  all 
communications  to  the  firm,"  "Prices  subject  to  change 
without  notice,"  "No  agreement  valid  unless  signed  by  an 
officer  of  the  company, "  is  likewise  to  be  discouraged.  Such 
printed  directions  mar  the  appearance  of  the  sheet,  and 
should  not  appear  unless  absolutely  necessary. 

301.  Anyone  who  is  in  doubt  as  to  what  sort  of  a  letter- 
head to  use  should  consult  an  expert.  A  good  printing  or 
engraving  house  will  design  one  that  will  contain  the  essential 
information,  be  properly  spaced  and  well  printed.  On  the 
following  page  are  examples  of  satisfactory  letter-heads : 


194  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 


GOOD.^nE:AR 

The  Goodyear  Tire  &  Rubber  Gbmpany 

Akron.  Ohio 


HARCOURT  BRACE  AND  COMPANY,  inc 

PUBLISHERS 
ONE  WEST  FORTY  SEVENTH  STREET     -  NEW  YORK 
T«li*heM:eryu<<«7l  Cd>b  AtMraa:  HvknM.  Nm  York 


^tate  of  Caltfoniia 

LEGISLATIVE   COUNSEL   BUREAU 


^alf  at  Ariauma 


Sears.  Roebuck  ani>  Co 
Chicago 

TxtBAStnuERB  Ottxcm 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    195 

302.  Every  letter  consists  of  three  parts — the  Heading, 
the  Body,  and  the  Ending.  Let  us  consider  them  as  they 
come. 

303.  The  Heading  contains  the  date,  the  introductory 
address,  and  the  salutation.  The  following  illustration 
makes  clear  the  best  form  to  use  with  a  printed  letter-head: 

NORTHWESTERN    UNIVERSITY 

COLLEGE  OF  LIBERAL  ARTS 

EVANSTON,  ILLINOIS 


June  4.    1919. 


Marshall  Pield  &  Company, 

Chicago, 

Illinois. 

gentlemen: 


304.  If  a  letter-head  is  not  used,  the  address  as  well  as 
the  date  must  be  written.  In  this  case  one  should  include 
enough  so  that  the  reader  will  know  exactly  how  to  address  his 
reply.  If  the  firm  is  established  in  a  large  town  or  city,  the 
street  and  number,  or  the  numbers  of  the  rooms  in  an  office 
building,  are  desirable. 

305.  The  date  should  be  written  out  in  full  as  in  the 
illustration  in  paragraph  303;  the  abbreviation  6/4/19  may 
be  misread  as  6  April  1919.  .  Avoid  more  ornate  ways  of 
indicating  the  date,  such  as 


June   four 
Nineteen-nineteea 


or, 


June     4 
19   19 

or, 

June 
Pour 

Hineteen 
ITineteen 


196  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

These  take  unnecessary  time  in  typing,  and  add  nothing  of 
value  to  the  appearance  of  the  letter. 

306.  In  a  letter  which  is  to  be  single-spaced  on  the  type- 
writer— and  nearly  all  letters  are  of  this  sort — there  should 
be  a  double  space  (1)  between  the  lowest  date  line  and  the 
first  line  of  the  introductory  address,  (2)  between  the  address 
and  the  salutation,  and  (3)  between  the  salutation  and  the 
body  of  the  letter.     (See  model  letter,  paragraph  322.) 

307.  The  introductory  address  consists  of  the  name  and 
location  of  the  person  or  firm  to  whom  the  letter  is  written. 
The  name  should  be  spelled  precisely  as  it  appears  in  that 
person's  signature.  If,  for  example,  a  letter  is  signed  ''Geo.  B. 
Smith,"  the  address  on  the  reply  should  not  be  "George  B. 
Smith,"  or  ''G.  B.  Smith,"  but  ''Geo.  B.  Smith."  If  it  is 
signed  "James  R.  Jones  &  Co.,"  the  abbreviation  "&  Co." 
should  not  be  expanded  into  "and  Company." 

308.  If  a  firm's  name  consists  only  of  the  names  of  the 
partners,  it  is  proper  in  the  address  to  prefix  the  abbreviation 
"Messrs."     Thus:     "Messrs.  Jones,  Smith,  and  Brown." 

309.  The  title  "  Esquire  "  may  be  used  after  the  name  of  a 
man,  if  one  desires  to  give  an  impression  of  unusual  dignity. 
One  should  not,  however,  write  "Mr.  John  Brown,  Esq."; 
simply  "John  Brown,  Esq." 

310.  Senators,  congressmen,  governors,  mayors,  and 
judges  are  by  custom  entitled  to  be  addressed  in  writing  as 
"Honorable."  The  headings  of  letters  in  such  cases  would 
be  as  follows: 

Evansrille,  Indiana 
January  29,  1920 

The  Hon.  Henry  Cabot  Lodge, 

United  States  Senate, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

My  dear  Senator: 
(or,  Uy  dear  Sir:) 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    197 

The  salutation  for  congressmen,  governors,  mayors,  and 
judges  should  be  the  simple  "My  dear  Sir." 

311.  Ministers,  Catholic  or  Protestant,  should  be  ad- 
dressed thus : 

The  Reverend  E.  A.  Smyth.«, 
Washington,  D,  C. 

My  dear  Mr.  Smythe: 

or  in  the  case  of  a  Catholic, 

Reverend  and  Dear  Pather: 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  forms  "Reverend 
Smythe,"  or  ''Dear  Reverend,"  be  used.  If  the  person 
addressed  is  a  Doctor  of  Divinity,  the  proper  form  would  be: 

The  Rev.  E.  A.  Smythe,  D.D.  , 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Dear  Doctor  Smythe: 

312.  The  title  "Professor"  is  subject  to  common  misuse. 
In  strict  propriety  it  should  be  reserved  for  those  members 
of  a  teaching  faculty  who  have  been  elected  to  positions  of 
professorial  rank.  It  is  as  incongruous  and  illogical  to  ad- 
dress as  "professor"  a  person  who  still  ranks  as  instructor, 
as  it  would  be  to  call  all  the  commissioned  officers  of  a  regi- 
ment "Colonel."  The  salutation  "Dear  Professor,"  or 
"Dear  Prof.,"  is  a  barbarism.  Letters  addressed  properly 
adhere  fairly  closely  to  the  following: 

Professor  John  R.  Jones, 
The  University  of  Wisconsin, 
Madison,  Wisconsin. 

My  dear  Professor  Jones: 

or, 

My  dear  Mr.  Jones: 

Mr.  John  R.  Doe, 

Principal,  Westchester  High  School, 

Westchester,  Massachusetts. 

My  dear  Mr.  Doe: 


198  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

313.  The  proper  punctuation  and  indention  for  the 
address  are  indicated  in  the  illustration  in  paragraph  303. 

314.  Below  the  address,  and  separated  from  it  by  a 
double  space,  appears  the  salutation.  The  usual  form  for  a 
letter  addressed  to  a  man  is  ''Dear  Sir";  for  a  letter  addressed 
to  a  woman,  ''Dear  Madam, "  whether  or  not  she  is  married; 
for  a  letter  addressed  to  a  firm,  "Gentlemen."  The  form 
"Dear  Sirs"  is  not  today  in  general  favor.  If  the  letter  is 
somewhat  less  formal  than  the  ordinary  business  communica- 
tion, the  salutation  may  take  one  of  the  following  forms: 
"My  dear  Sir";  "My  dear  Mr.  Brown";  "Dear  Mr.  Brown." 
The  proper  punctuation  mark  after  the  salutation  is  the 
colon.     The  combination  of  colon  and  dash  is  unnecessary. 

315.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  letter  addressed 
nominally  to  a  firm  is  intended  for  some  particular  individual. 
To  indicate  this  fact  many  writers  are  today  using  the  device 

■  of  including  in  the  heading  of  the  letter  a  single  line  of  direc- 
tion, "Attention  Mr.  J.  B.  Doe."  In  such  cases  the  heading 
will  appear  thus: 

> 

J.  R.  Smith  and  Co. , 

San  Francisco.  California. 

Attention  Mr.  J.  B.  Doe,  Sales  Manager. 

Gentlemen: 

Usually,  however,  it  is  better  in  such  cases  to  address  the 
letter  directly  to  the  individual  concerned,  and  thus  to  avoid 
the  intrusive  and  sometimes  slightly  offensive  innovation. 
Most  people  would  agree,  for  instance,  that  the  following 
would  have  been  better  form  than  the  address  printed  just 
above: 

Mr.  J.    B.  Doe,  Sales  Manager, 

J.  R.  Smith  and  Co. , 

San  Francisco,  California. 

My  dear  Sir: 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE     199 

EXERCISE  1. 

Write  headings  for  letters  from  yourseK  to  the  following: 

1.  A  local  clergyman. 

2.  Wanamaker  and  Company,  Philadelphia. 

3.  Yom-  Congressman. 

4.  A  business  firm  advertising  in  the  local  paper. 

5.  Your  teacher. 

316.  The  Body  of  the  letter,  the  message,  begins  two 
spaces  below  the  salutation.  It  is  ordinarily  arranged  in 
rather  short  paragraphs,  each  of  which  states  or  develops 
one  definite  topic  (see  above,  paragraphs  207,  231).  There 
should  be  a  double  space  between  paragraphs,  and  the  first 
line  of  each  should  be  indented  not  more  than  an  inch,  or 
ten  spaces  on  the  typewriter.  Some  firms,  in  order  to  save 
the  time  of  the  typist,  omit  this  indention  and  trust  to  the 
double  space  to  indicate  the  paragraph  divisions.  This 
custom,  however,  has  not  yet  become  general.  If  indented, 
the  paragraphs  should  "line-up"  accurately,  each  one 
beginning  at  precisely  the  same  point  on  the  space-bar. 

317.  The  Ending  of  the  letter,  beginning  two  spaces 
below  the  Body,  consists  of  the  complimentary  close  and  the 
signature.  The  close,  in  the  ordinary  business  letter,  will 
usually  be  either  "Yours  truly"  or  "Very  truly  yours."  In 
informal  letters  the  phrase  "Sincerely  yours,"  or  "Cordially 
yours,"  may  be  used.  The  close  should  begin  at  about  the 
center  of  the  sheet,  irrespective  of  where  the  line  of  paragraph 
indentions  is  placed.  This  ensures  a  proper  balance  on  the 
page  between  the  address  and  salutation  and  the  ending. 

318.  The  signature,  always  easily  legible,  and  always 
written  except  in  routine  correspondence,  indicates  who  is 
responsible  for  the  statements  in  the  Body.  If  the  writer 
desires  to  take  the  responsibility  himself,  he  signs  his  name 
just  above  the  typed  name  of  the  firm,  thus: 

(/Sales  Manager 
A.   £.   Boe  &  Co.. 


200  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  responsibility  rests  on  the  firm,  the 
signature  of  the  writer  appears  below  the  firm^s  name,  thus: 

A.  B.   Boe  &  Co* 

&^0B  Manager 

In  a  routine  letter  the  typed  name  of  the  firm,  followed 
sometimes  by  the  initials  of  the  individual  who  dictated  it, 
may  suffice  as  signature.  A  married  woman  signs  her  full 
name,  thus:  "Mary  McAllister  Smith,"  or  ''Mary  M. 
Smith, "  and  adds  in  parenthesis,  below,  her  designation  as  a 
married  woman  (Mrs.  T.  B.  Smith).  An  unmarried  woman 
may  properly  prefix  the  word  ''Miss"  in  parenthesis,  thus: 
"(Miss)  Jane  Smith." 

319.  For  purposes  of  identification  it  is  usually  desirable 
to  indicate  briefly  both  the  dictator  and  the  typist.  This  is 
accomplished  by  placing  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the 
letter  the  initials  of  the  two  persons,*  thus :  FBS-AB,  the 
FBS  indicating  the  dictator. 

320.  When  documents  are  enclosed  with  a  letter,  the  fact 
^"^^^ndicated  thus:  "3  enc.,!J  as  in  the  illustration  in  paragraph 

322. 

321.  Never  allow  the  typist  to  print  a  line  of  dots  or 
dashes  for  the  signature.  Never  add  such  a  statement  as 
"dictated  but  not  read."  Unless  the  writer  is  willing  to 
take  the  responsibility  for, what  he  has  written,  he  should 
not  write  at  all. 

322.  The  following  letter  embodies  most  of  the  foregoing 
suggestions,  and  illustrates  how  careful  centering  on  the 
page,  both  horizontal  and  vertical,  adequate  balance,  proper 
spacing  and  indention,  all  have  their  effect  in  giving  a  letter 
a  pleasing  appearance.  The  irregularity  of  margin  on  the 
right  of  the  typed  letter  is  almost  unavoidable.  Needless 
to  say,  however,  the  smoother  the  right-hand  margin,  the 
more  attractive  the  whole. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    201 


llbaay,  Yeraoat. 
Jttly  26.  1919. 

John  B.  Smith  and  Sons, 
Chloago,  Illinois. 

Gontlaoen : 

YottT  repreeentatlve  Mr.   George  Jliller 
has  juBt  told  me  that  Ifce  Orleans  county 
agency  for  your  "Peerleea"  milkere  and  separ- 
ators Is  vacant.     Will  you  oonsider  me  an 
applicant  for  the  position? 

For  the  last  ten  years  I  have  been 
selling  farm  goods,  and  have  built  up  a 
jusinese  that  is  the  best  in  this  part  of 
the  state.     But  it  is  time   I  added  something 
new  to  the   lines  I  have  been  carrying,    and 
1  should  be  glad  to  serve  as  representative 
for  a  firw  that  is  as  well  thought  of  as  ar» 
you. 

Please  refer  to  the  enclosed  letters 
for  information  concerning  my  character,   ex- 
pertenoe,  and  general  reliability. 


Yours  very  truly, 


9  •&9« 


323.  These  suggestions  concerning  good  form  apply  to 
all  business  letters,  whether  or  not  specially  dictated. 
Though  in  ''form  letters"  it  is  often  impracticable  to  write 
the  signature,  and  the  introductory  address  may  not  always 
appear  in  full,  the  form  letter  should  follow  as  closely  as 


202  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

possible  the  rules  for  the  highest  class  of  business  corre- 
spondence. No  such  communication  can  ever  make  quite 
the  impression  of  the  well-typed  personal  letter;  but  the 
nearer  it  approaches  the  ideal  the  more  successful  it  will  be. 

EXERCISE  2. 

1.  Keeping  in  mind  what  you  have  just  read  about  good  form, 
write  the  following  letters: 

(a)  From  John  Smith,  who  Hves  at  57  Broad  Street,  Peoria, 
Illinois,  to  Sears,  Roebuck  &  Company,  of  Chicago,  asking  for  their 
general  catalogue. 

(6)  From  yourself,  to  Marshall  Field  &  Company,  of  Chicago, 
applying  for  a  position  as  salesperson. 

(c)  From  Mrs.  A.  B.  Jones,  of  Greensboro,  Vermont,  to  the  Berry- 
Ball  Dry  Goods  Company,  of  St.  Johnsbury,  Vermont,  seqding  a 
postal  money  order  for  11.27  for  four  yards  of  gingham  like  an 
enclosed  sample. 

(d)  From  the  Berry-Ball  Company  to  Mrs.  Jones,  saying  that 
they  are  out  of  gingham  hke  her  sample,  and  asking  whether  they 
shall  send  something  as  nearly  Hke  it  as  possible. 

•■  (e)  From  Richard  Roe,  credit  manager  of  A.  F.  Johns  &  Co.,  123 
Broadway,  New  York,  to  A.  B.  Cuthbertson,  1136  Chapel  Street, 
New  Haven,  Connecticut,  asking  for  information  about  the  credit 
of  John  Doe,  284  Dwight  Street,  New  Haven. 

2.  Write  letters  answering  any  four  of  the  following  advertise- 
ments (taken  from  the  Chicago  Daily  News) : 

1.  STENOGRAPHER— A  YOUNG  MAN  with 
some  bookkeeper's  experience,  and  able  to  take  notes 
accurately.  Suite  301,  Central  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  19  S. 
La  Salle  St. 

2.  BOOKKEEPER  AND  STENOGRAPHER. 

Competent  to  keep  set  of  double-entry  books  and 
take  charge  small  office:  state  salary  and  exp.  Ad- 
dress W  Y  73,  Daily  News. 

3.  CLERK— YOUNG  MAN  with  High  School 
education  for  office  of  south  side  manufacturing  con- 
cern: good  opportunity  for  party  adapted  to  handling 
details  of  management:  state  age,  experience,  and 
initial  salary.    Address  W  Y  89,  Daily  News. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    203 

4.  GIRL— WITH  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCA- 
TION. To  work  as  copyholder:  good  opportunity 
to  become  a  proofreader:  permanent  position.  Foley 
&  Co.  2835  Sheffield  Avenue. 

5.  STENOGRAPHER— YOUNG  LADY.  Ex- 
perienced in  real  estate:  state  experience  and  give 
reference  and  salary  wanted.  Address  T  73,  Daily 
News. 

6.  WOMAN— YOUNG.  TO  WORK  IN  BILL- 
ING dept.  of  coat  and  suit  manufacturer:  must  be 
accurate  at  figures:  references  required.  PERCIVAL 
B.  PALMER  &  CO.,  367  W.  Adams  St. 

7.  YOUNG  LADY— EXPERIENCED.  As 
Cashier;  also  ledger  poster.  L.  Fish  Furniture  Co. 
1906  S.  Wabash  Ave. 

3.  After  writing  the  letters  of  application  called  for  in  this  exer- 
cise, study  the  model  in  paragraph  359,  and  note  any  points  in 
which  your  letters  could  be  improved. 

B.   The   ''You-attitude." 

324.  Few  things  are  more  pleasing  to  a  person  than  the 
knowledge  that  some  one  else  is  interested  in  his  success, 
and  wishes  him  well.  Once  convince  a  man  that  your  sole 
purpose  is  not  to  make  profits  from  his  trade,  but  that  you 
are  trying  to  be  of  some  service  to  him,  and  you  have  made 
a  friend. 

325.  How  can  you  convince  a  man  that  you  have  this 
sort  of  interest  in  him?  First  of  all,  by  feeling  it  yourself. 
You  must  be  able  to  see  beyond  the  month's  balance  sheet; 
you  must  have  vision,  imagination,  if  you  would  succeed  in 
business.  You  must  realize  that  a  satisfied  customer  is  the 
best  sort  of  asset,  and  that  steadily  increasing  good-will  is  of 
more  value  than  a  temporary  jump  in  profits.  In  other 
words,  you  must  take  as  your  motto  not  simply  profits,  but 
service. 


204  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

326.  Of  course  one  may  argue  that  a  person  who  thus 
emphasizes  service  is  only  stressing  the  means  to  an  end; 
that  the  real  object  of  all  business  is  financial  profit.  With- 
out debating  the  question  whether  the  business  man  finds 
hiis  greatest  reward  in  a  growing  bank  account  or  in  the 
knowledge  that  he  is  contributing  something  to  the  welfare 
of  his  fellow  citizens,  one  may  answer  merely  that  the  business 
man  who  emphasizes  the  profits  and  slights  the  service  is 
apt  before  long  to  find  that  the  goal  he  seeks  is  eluding  him. 

327.  When  once  the  business  man  has  satisfied  himself 
of  the  great  importance  of  service,  the  next  step  is  to  convince 
his  customers  of  his  desire  to  aid  them.  Here  the  letter  is 
important :  it  should  in  some  way,  direct  or  indirect,  suggest 
to  the  reader  this  desire;  it  should  reflect  what  is  generally 
called  tiie  **you-attitude." 

328.  The  mere  fact  that  a  letter  emphasizes  the  pronoun 
''you,"  instead  of  ''I"  or  "we,"  may  seem  trivial;  the  psy- 
chological value  of  that  *'you"  is,  however,  considerable. 
The  following  letters  say  the  same  thing.  Which  would  make 
the  better  impression  upon  a  reader? 

(1)  We  have  received  your  order  for  1  doz.  cases  No.  2  tomatoes, 
which  our  Mr.  Smith  sent  us  on  July  3.  We  are  sure  that  this 
year's  canning  is  better  than  any  we  have  ever  put  out,  and  will 
ship  the  order  in  the  hope  that  the  excellence  of  these  goods  will  be 
a  surprise  even  to  those  who  have  known  our  goods  in  the  past. 

(2)  Thank  you  foi  the  order  for  1  doz.  cases  No.  2  tomatoes, 
which  you  placed  on  July  3  with  Mr.  Smith.  Your  customers  will 
be  surprised  when  they  find  that  these  goods  are  better  than  ever 
before.    We  hope  you  will  be  as  pleased  with  the  shipment  as  we  are. 

The  first  letter  says  ''we,"  "pur,"  "us";  the  second  says 
"you,"  "your."  The  difference  is  only  superficial,  but  it  is 
important. 

329.  A  more  fundamental  requirement,  if  your  letters 
are  to  display  this  "you-attitude,"  is  knowledge  of  your 
customers.     Assume,  for  example,  that  there  are  in  the  same 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    205 

town  ten  men  to  whom  you  sell  goods,  and  that  you  know 
each  one  of  them  intimately.  If  you  could  interview  each 
of  the  ten  personally  on  a  business  trip,  you  would  treat  no 
two  in  precisely  the  same  way.  The  owner  of  a  large  store, 
with  whom  you  had  done  business  for  years,  would  greet 
you  cordially.  Ten  minutes  at  the  end  of  luncheon  would 
suffice  for  your  business.  On  the  other  hand,  a  merchant  just 
establishing  himself,  and  having  a  hard  time  paying  his  bills, 
would  require  a  different  approach.  He  might  well  be 
suspicious  of  you,  and  think  you  had  come  to  dun  him.  So 
it  would  go  around  the  circle:  in  each  case  your  knowledge 
of  the  man  and  of  his  affairs  would  determine  the  course  you 
would  take. 

330.  Now  it  is  quite  impossible  to  vary  the  letters  to 
these  ten  men  as  much  as  you  would  your  conversation  with 
them.  But  you  can  do  something  in  your  letters  to  give 
each  man  the  feeling  of  personal  interest  which  you  would 
try  to  convey  in  an  interview;  you  can  do  something,  that  is, 
if  you  have  any  knowledge  of  these  men,  or  are  willing  to 
look  up  what  your  records  tell  of  them. 

331.  For  instance,  touches  like  these  may  mean  much 
to  your  reader:  "The  regularity  of  your  orders  gives  us 
much  pleasure,"  or,  ''We  see  that  your  order  this  time  is 
twice  as  large  as  it  was  six  months  ago.  We  are  glad  that 
your  business  is  growing  so  fast."  The  moral  is,  to  know 
as  much  as  you  can  about  your  customers,  and  to  let  your 
knowledge  of  them  and  interest  in  them  appear  courteously, 
not  officiously  or  patronizingly,  in  what  you  write. 

332.  This  courteous  interest  in  the  reader  is  a  fundamental 
of  all  good  business  correspondence.  It  can  be  a  feature  of 
adjustment  or  collection  letters  as  surely  as  of  others.  In- 
deed, it  is  most  valuable  in  letters  which  are  intended  to 
smooth  over  the  rough  places  in  business.  For  instance, 
suppose  the  chief  purpose  of  a  letter  is  to  point  out  a  man's 


206  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

error  in  ordering.  Here  is  an  excellent  chance  to  emphasize 
the  desire  to  be  of  service;  why  stress  the  fact  that  he  has 
blundered? 

333.  Compare  the  following  letter,  written  to  a  dealer 
who  had  carelessly  omitted  the  catalogue  number  when 
ordering  an  ice-box,  with  the  one  which  might  have  been 
written: 

We  regret  the  fact  that  we  are  unable  to  ship  the  ice-box  you 
ordered  on  April  24  until  you  send  us  the  catalogue  number.  You 
failed  to  note  that  this  number  must  be  sent  in  all  cases,  as  we 
cannot  risk  shipping  without  definite  identification. 

It  would  have  been  much  better  to  write  something  like  this: 

Thank  you  for  the  order  for  an  ice-box,  which  reached  us  April 
27.  We  are  not  absolutely  certain  which  number  in  the  catalogue 
your  customer  picked  out,  however;  and  to  avoid  possible  dis- 
appointment on  his  part  we  will  hold  the  shipment  until  you  have 
notified  us — by  wire,  if  you  choose — of  the  exact  type  selected. 

Just  send  a  single  line:    "Send  number , "  and  we  will  forward 

the  box  at  once. 

The  first  letter  says  "we,"  and  emphasizes  the  merchant's 
mistake.  The  second  says  "you,"  and  minimizes  the  error 
by  emphasizing  the  firm's  desire  to  be  of  service  to  both  the 
dealer  and  his  customer. 

334.  Just  as  this  last  letter,  while  calling  the  attention  of 
the  dealer  to  his  oversight,  lays  the  chief  stress  upon  a  pleas- 
ant matter,  so  a  collection  letter  may  serve  its  chief  purpose 
of  stirring  the  debtor's  conscience  without  letting  slip  a 
chance  to  comment  pleasantly  upon  his  business  or  to  suggest 
desirable  purchases. 

335.  For  instance,  A.  B.  Willey,  an  honest  but  not  very 
progressive  merchant,  who  kept  a  general  store  in  New 
Hampshire,  found  one  summer  that  the  campers  whom  he 
usually  counted  on  for  the  bulk  of  his  trade  during  July  and 
August,  were  buying  most  of  their  provisions  in  Boston  and 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    207 

New  York.  As  a  result,  he  was  overstocked,  his  money  was 
tied  up,  and  he  fell  behind  in  his  payments  to  two  wholesale 
houses.     One  of  the  two  wrote  this  letter: 

Your  accounts  for  May  and  June  are  overdue.  Please  let  us 
have  your  check  at  once,  or  we  shall  be  obliged  to  refuse  further 
credit. 

The .  other,  whose  salesman  had  reported  the  reasons  for 
Willey's  difficulties,  wrote  thus: 

Mr.  Smith  tells  us  that  your  summer  patrons  are  buying  in  large 
quantities  from  New  York  and  Boston,  and  that  as  a  result  your 
business  is  dull  this  year. 

Of  course  we  can  hardly  blame  a  man  for  getting  his  food  as 
cheaply  as  possible,  in  these  days  of  high  prices.  But  perhaps 
between  us  we  can  convince  your  customers  that  they  can  buy 
through  you  as  economically  as  through  the  city  dealers. 

The  enclosed  is  a  sample  of  a  sort  of  order  blank  we  are  dis- 
tributing to  our  patrons,  which  they  in  turn  pass  on  to  theirs.  It 
will  make  clear  the  large  savings  that  can  be  effected  by  ordering 
by  the  dozen  or  the  case,  and  ought  to  add  considerably  to  your 
trade.    Shall  we  send  you  a  hundred  or  so? 

When  business  picks  up  a  little,  we  shall  be  glad  to  have  a  check 
for  your  May  and  June  accounts.  Meantime,  can  we  not  help 
you  recover  the  trade  that  ought  to  be  yours? 

Of  course  it  took  longer  to  write  the  second  letter  than  the 
first;  but  the  first  angered  an  old  and  reUable  customer;  the 
second  made  a  friend  of  him,  insured  him  more  business, 
and  at  the  end  of  three  weeks,  brought  the  wholesale  house 
a  check  in  full  for  the  amount  he  owed.  If  "honesty  is  the 
best  policy,"  courtesy  is  almost  as  essential.  It  should  be  a 
feature  of  every  letter  a  business  man  writes. 

C.   Personal  Style. 

336.  Many  people  who  are  actually  in  the  state  of  mind 
implied  in  the  phrase  "the  you-attitude,^'  who  take  a  courte- 
ous interest  in  their  correspondents,   fail  nevertheless  to 


208  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

express  this  interest  in  their  letters  because  they  still  use  the 
old-fashioned  and  now  fortunately  obsolescent  phraseology 
of  the  legal  document.  When  business  letters  were  chiefly 
records  of  agreements,  there  was  some  justification  for  the 
stiflfness  and  formality  that  made  them  so  uniformly  dull. 
Today  there  is  no  need  for  such  overloading.  Though  a  letter 
will  never  be  as  colloquial  as  conversation/ it  should  have 
much  of  the  personal  style  which  the  merchant  of  thirty 
years  ago  never  thought  of  in  connection  with  his  correspon- 
dence, but  which  is  today  more  and  more  appreciated. 

337.  The  first  step  in  the  development  of  this  personal 
style  is  the  absolute  elimination  of  expressions  like  the 
following : 

Answering  (or  referring  to)  yours  of  such  and  such  a  date. 

Your  favor  of  the  9th  inst.  at  hand. 

Your  esteemed  favor  received. 

Contents  carefully  noted. 

As  per  yours  of  the  14th  ult. 

In  reply  would  state. 

We  wish  to  state. 

We  beg  to  state. 

We  are  pleased  to  advise. 

We  are  at  a  loss  to  understand. 

We  are  in  receipt  of. 

We  credit  you  with  same. 

Enclosed  please  find. 

We  hand  you  herewith. 

Thanking  you  for  j^our  past  favors. 

Trusting  to  be  favored  with  a  continuance  of  your  patronage. 

Awaiting  a  reply  at  your  earliest  convenience. 

338.  One  should  avoid,  too,  the  conventional — and 
usually  ungrammatical — introduction  ''Answering  yours  of 
the  21st,"  and  the  long-winded  participial  conclusion: 
"Hoping  for,"  ''Thanking  you  for,"  etc.  The  mere  fact 
that  an  opening  sentence  such  as  "Answering  yours  of  May 
24"  is  hopelessly  ungrammatical,  is  enough  to  condemn  it. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE     209 

Moreover,  this  clumsy  way  of  acknowledging  the  previous 
letter  wastes  the  very  important  opening  sentence  upon  a 
secondary  matter.  If  it  is  necessary  to  refer  with  absolute 
definiteness  to  a  previous  letter,  a  phrase  like  *'In  reply  to 

your  number , "  standing  by  itself  in  one  of  the  upper 

corners  of  the  sheet,  is  always  proper  and  generally  sufficient. 
In  any  case,  one  should  not  sacrifice  the  opening  sentence 
in  this  careless  and  conventional  way.  It  is  perhaps  more 
unfortunate  to  affront  the  reader  by  closing  with  a  request 
that  he  reply  at  his  ''earUest  convenience."  If  there  is  need 
for  unusual  haste,  telegraph;  otherwise,  except  in  the  case 
of  a  notorious  delinquent,  assume  that  he  will  reply  with  the 
courteous  promptness  a  business  letter  always  demands. 
Don't  antagonize  him  needlessly. 

339.  After  the  eradication  of  all  such  stock  phrases  from 
a  business  vocabulary,  the  next  step  will  be  to  adopt  a  more 
positive  program.  For  instance,  instead  of  the  formal  ac- 
knowledgment in  the  first  sentence,  it  is  far  better — and  just 
as  easy — to  work  in  a  reference  to  a  previous  letter  or  order 
in  a  casual  and  personal  way.  Compare  the  four  following 
introductory  sentences : 

(1)  Acknowledging  your  order  for  2  cases  No.  10  milk,  dated 
July  26. 

This  is  ungrammatical. 

(2)  Your  order  for  2  cases,  No.  10  milk,  dated  July  26,  has  been 
received. 

This  is  correct,  but  unnecessarily  stiff. 

(3)  Your  letter  of  Dec.  5  is  at  hand.  We  are  at  a  loss  to  under- 
stand why  you  have  not  yet  received  the  shipment  of  wire. 

This  too  is  correct,  but  purely  conventional,  and  negative. 

(4)  You  are  quite  right  in  thinking  that  the  wire  you  ordered 
some  time  ago  should  have  reached  you  by  December  5. 

This  is  easy,  natural,  and  personal. 


210  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

340.  The  following  is  typical  of  a  sort  of  acknowledgment 
which  is  altogether  too  common:  ''Your  account  credited 
with  $24.85,  as  per  check  and  credit  memos.,  received  July 
10."  Even  printed  forms  for  routine  cases  should  be  gram- 
matical and  courteous. 

341.  Again,  it  will  help  a  great  deal  toward  giving  one's 
style  a  personal  flavor  to  get  rid  of  the  useless  words  which 
never  figure  in  conversation,  but  which  litter  up  much  busi- 
ness correspondence:  "We  must  request,"  ''We  would 
like  to  ask,"  "Upon  consulting  our  records  we  find,"  etc. 
No  one  uses  such  expressions  in  a  talk  with  one  of  his  cus- 
tomers. Why,  then,  should  they  appear  in  letters?  They 
waste  time  upon  non-essentials.  The  best  rule  is  to  be 
direct,  to  write  courteously,  as  naturally  as  possible,  and  in 
as  few  words  as  circumstances  permit. 

342.  Finally,  one  should  always  remember  that  at  the 
other  end  of  the  letter's  journey  is  a  man  or  woman  like  him- 
self. The  fact  that  a  great  corporation  is  in  a  sense  an 
utterly  impersonal  machine  blinds  us  occasionally  to  the 
more  important  fact  that  each  operation  in  the  functioning 
of  that  machine  is  performed  by  a  human  being.  Keep  the 
other  fellow  in  mind,  whether  he  is  a  store-keeper  at  a  country 
cross-roads,  or  a  bank  president  in  New  York.  Think  of 
him,  and  treat  him  like  a  man. 

EXERCISE  3. 

Keeping  in  mind  what  you  have  just  read  about  the  "you-atti-" 
tude"  and  "personal  style,"  rewrite  the  following  letters: 

1.  Replying  to  yours  of  the  26th  inst.  We  are  unable  to  find 
any  flaws  in  the  parts  returned.  Our  inspection  tag  shows  that  the 
engine  was  in  good  order  when  it  left  us,  and  we  are  bound  to  believe 
that  it  must  have  received  some  injury  either  in  the  freight  car  or 
while  your  workmen  were  setting  it  up. 

We  beg  to  suggest  that  you  enter  claim  against  the  railroad, 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    211 

as  we  are  unable  to  allow  anything  in  such  cases  unless  the  broken 
parts  were  actually  defective. 

Kindly  let  us  have  your  check  for  $432.48,  the  balance  due 
on  this  last  shipment. 

Trusting  that  this  will  be  satisfactory,  we  remain,  etc. 

2.  In  reply  to  your  letter  of  July  9  we  would  state  that  your 
order  was  filled  and  shipped  the  day  it  was  received. 

As  a  business  man  you  ought  to  know  that  during  the  war 
nine  tenths  of  the  trouble  with  deliveries  is  not  the  fault  of  the 
shipper.  Due  to  railroad  congestion,  your  order  is  probably  held  up 
somewhere  between  here  and  Springfield.  Do  all  of  the  shipments 
you  send  out  get  through  right  away? 

Even  though  we  are  sure  it  is  not  our  fault,  we  will  do  what 
we  can  to  find  the  shipment,  and  have  started  a  tracer  after  it. 

Hoping  for  a  continuance  of  your  valued  patronage,  we  beg 
to  remain,  etc. 

3.  This  is  the  second  letter  I  have  had  to  write  complaining 
about  the  errors  on  my  last  month's  bill.  It  seems  to  me  that  each 
one  is  worse  than  the  one  before.  Why,  even  the  addition  is  wrong 
on  this  one.  Please  correct  it  at  once,  or  I  shall  never  charge  another 
thing  at  your  store. 

4.  We  are  in  receipt  of  your  check  for  $32.48,  and  credit  you  with 
same.  Herewith  we  beg  to  enclose  a  sample  of  ginghams,  as  per 
your  request.    Awaiting  your  further  commands,  we  are,  etc. 

5.  Answering  yours  of  July  18. 

We  are  always  glad  to  receive  your  orders,  but  this  is  for  so 
large  an  amount  that  we  wonder  whether  your  business  is  sufficient 
to  justify  the  expansion.  We  beg  to  state  that  in  such  circum- 
stances we  always  request  customers  to  submit  a  report  showing  a 
real  need  for  such  large  increases  in  stock. 

Hoping  to  hear  from  you  along  these  lines,  we  are,  etc. 

6.  We  are  pleased  to  state  that  your  order  for  ice  boxes  will  be 
filled  at  once. 

We  think  the  line  we  are  showing  this  year  is  equally  as  good 
or  better  than  any  in  the  trade,  and  are  sure  your  customers  will 
like  them. 

Thanking  you  for  your  past  favors,  we  beg  to  remain,  etc. 


212  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

D.   Clearness. 

343.  The  first  step  toward  making  letters  as  clear  as  they 
should  be  is  knowledge.  If  a  writer  knows  the  facts,  he  will 
probably  make  them  reasonably  clear  to  his  correspondent. 
But  to  trust  solely  to  the  clarifying  influence  of  ideas  upon 
style  would  be  foolish.  By  giving  a  little  thought  to  the  plan 
of  a  letter,  to  its  paragraphing,  and  to  conciseness,  complete- 
ness, and  correctness  of  expression,  one  can  do  much  to  make 
the  task  of  the  reader  easy. 

1.   THE  PLAN. 

344.  It  is  obviously  out  of  the  question"^for  a  business 
man  to  make  an  outline  for  each  letter  he  writes.  But  he 
can  at  least  have  some  sort  of  method,  and  at  times  a  simple 
mental  plan  will  not  be  impossible. 

345.  For  instance,  a  good  letter  should  refer  to  only  one 
general  subject.  Better  send  a  second  letter  than  confuse 
the  reader  by  discussing  too  many  things.  No  one  should 
forget  the  obvious  importance  of  the  opening  and  the  closing 
sentences,  and  the  necessity  of  making  proper  use  of  them. 
Things  which  belong  together  should  be  kept  together. 
Every  letter  will  have  ''sales-value."  Such  concerns  will  be 
part  of  your  regular  method  of  writing. 

346.  The  student  who  has  trained  himself  in  the  making 
of  outlines,  will  find  that  his  ideas  will  arrange  themselves  in 
proper  sequence  without  the  exertion  of  much  volition.  But 
if  a  study  of  a  dozen  or  two  of  his  letters  shows  that  they 
could  have  been  improved  in  these  respects,  it  will  pay  him 
to  spend  a  moment  in  thinking  things  over  before  he  begins. 

347.  The  suggestion  that  the  writer  study  his  own  letters 
is  an  important  one.  Take  a  random  assortment,  written, 
say,  two  weeks  ago.  Those  that  have  had  time  to  "^cool 
off"  are  easier  to  criticize  impersonally  than  more  recent 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    213 

ones.  See  whether  they  are  clear;  whether  there  is  a  plan  in 
them;  whether  the  main  point  is  adequately  brought  out. 
Note  the  shortcomings,  and  guard  against  them  in  the  future. 

2.  PARAGRAPHING. 

348.  Adequate  paragraphing  does  much  to  make  a  letter 
clear.  Though  there  is  rarely  an  opportunity  for  that  sort  of 
paragraph  development  which  one  expects  in  more  extensive 
compositions,  the  careful  writer  can  at  least  see  to  it  that 
each  paragraph  deals  with  only  one  phase  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject, is  short  enough  to  be  grasped  by  the  reader  as  a  single 
unit,  and  that  all  the  paragraphs  follow  one  another  in 
logical  and  effective  order. 

349.  The  length  of  a  paragraph  will  be  determined 
partly  by  the  nature  of  the  subject,  but  rather  more  by  the 
fact — attested  by  the  experience  and  practise  of  newspaper 
writers — ^that  long  paragraphs  are  forbidding,  and  short, 
crisp  ones  are  inviting.  As  we  have  said  before,  it  is  better 
to  split  a  logical  unit,  which  might  be  developed  in  thirty 
lines,  into  three  paragraphs  of  ten  lines  each,  than  to  run  the 
risk  of  having  a  long  paragraph  passed  over  unread.  Of 
course  undue  brevity  is  objectionable.  **  Sentence  para- 
graphing,'* in  which  each  sentence  begins  a  new  paragraph, 
should  almost  always  be  avoided.  Too  little  is  almost  as 
bad  as  too  much.  To  strike  the  proper  balance  between 
the  two  the  business  writer  must  depend  upon  a  study  of  the 
letters  he  sends  and  receives,  and  especially  upon  his  own 
common  sense. 

3.  CONCISENESS. 

350.  Conciseness  in  a  letter  is  another  quality  which 
makes  for  clearness.  Franklin's  rule,  "Use  no  unnecessary 
words,"  is  the  proper  rule  for  the  business  man.  This  does 
not  mean  that  curtness  or  abruptness  is  desirable.     But 


214  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

every  phrase  which  adds  nothing  detracts  in  some  way;  it 
wastes  the  time  of  both  writer  and  reader,  and  hinders  the 
latter  in  his  task  of  getting  quickly  at  the  main  purport  of 
the  letter. 

4.    COMPLETENESS. 

351.  Completeness,  too,  is  an  essential  of  the  clear  letter. 
Though  it  is  usually  unnecessary  to  include  a  summary  of  all 
previous  correspondence,  enough  should  be  given,  in  the  way 
of  reference  to  other  letters,  agreements,  or  specifications, 
to  put  the  whole  matter  easily  before  the  reader,  and  to 
enable  him  quickly  to  look  up  additional  information  in  his 
files.  If  the  letter  includes  a  statement  of  complex  arith- 
metical processes,  discounts,  the  addition  or  subtraction 
of  large  sums,  these  should  be  accurately  tabulated.  Espe- 
cially in  a  letter  which  orders  goods,  all  the  data  necessary 
should  be  included.  A  letter  which  leaves  the  reader  in 
doubt  about  a  material  point,  or  which  adds  iki  a  postscript 
something  which  belonged  in  the  body  of  the  letter,  is  in- 
excusable. 

5.  CORRECTNESS. 

352.  Finally,  grammatical  correctness  is  a  sine  qua  non  of 
clear  writing.  Dangling  participles,  uncertain  relatives — 
anything  which  is  ungrammatical — will  annoy  a  careful 
reader,  or  perhaps  mislead  him.  The  student  should  never 
forget  what  we  have  emphasized  throughout  this  book:  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  the  principles  of  rhetoric  are  aids  to  the 
easiest  method  of  exchanging  ideas.  They  are  not  formu- 
lated to  make  writing  difficult,  but  to  make  good — that  is 
clear — ^writing  easy. 

EXERCISE  4. 

Take  two  of  the  letters  written  for  Exercise  2  of  this  chapter  and 
rewrite  them  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions  given  in  the  text 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE     215 

i 

concerning  "personal  style"  and  "clearness."  When  you  have  done 
this,  write  a  paragraph  summarizing  the  faults  you  have  discovered 
in  your  letters  as  originally  written. 


E.  "Every  Letter  a  Sales-leti^er'^ 

353.  Finally,  every  business  letter  is  in  a  sense  a  sales- 
letter.  This  statement  in  one  way  or  another  fundamentally 
affects  all  business  writing.  Many  people  forget  that  every 
letter  gives  the  writer  a  chance  to  "sell"  something.  It 
may  not  be  goods;  it  may  be  good-will,  which  in  the  long 
run  is  more  important.  The  thing  to  remember  is  that  any 
letter  can  be  the  excuse  for  a  sentence  or  two  in  which  the 
writer  may  show  his  ability  as  a  salesman. 

354.  To  give  this  sales-value  to  letters  one  need  not 
spend  hours  in  study.  Of  course  proficiency  is  not  won  at  a 
single  stroke,  but  so  far  as  the  fundamentals  are  concerned, 
it  is  largely  a  matter  of  a  few  general  suggestions,  a  little 
forethought,  and  practise. 

355.  For  instance,  it  is  good  salesmanship  always  to 
suggest  in  some  way  a  desire  to  be  of  service  to  the  correspon- 
dent; the  "you-attitude"  is  good  business  as  well  as  good 
manners.  Or,  if  it  is  necessary  to  say  "no"  to  a  request,  it  is 
good  salesmanship  in  the  same  letter  to  say  "yes"  to  some- 
thing else.  And  the  wise  man  will  say  "no"  in  a  sentence, 
but  will  say  "yes"  in  a  paragraph.  If  the  main  purpose 
of  a  letter  is  merely  to  say  "no" — to  refuse  credit,  for  ex- 
ample— that  letter  may  be  the  occasion  for  suggesting  the 
value  of  some  service,  the  savings  from  cash  transactions,  or 
the  writer's  willingness  to  do  something  that  will  help  the 
reader.  Or,  if  obliged  to  insist  upon  immediate  payment 
of  an  over-due  account,  the  good  salesman  will  "bury"  this 
insistence  in  the  middle  of  the  letter,  unless  he  no  longer 
cares  to  retain  the  customer's  trade.  The  beginning  and  end 
should  treat  of  more  pleasant  concerns;  particularly  the  end 


216  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

should  open  the  way  for  the  correspondent  to  ask  something 
which  can  be  granted. 

356.  In  general,  too,  it  is  good  salesmanship  to  avoid 
purely  negative  letters.  The  careful  correspondent  will  see 
to  it  that  his  openings  and  closes  have  a  positive  quality. 
He  will  avoid  ''We  regret,"  or,  ''Your  failure  to  specify." 
Such  negative  introductions  are  nearly  always  unfortunate. 
Similarly,  a  conclusion  which  suggests  an  unfavorable  re- 
action is  deplorable.  It  strikes  entirely  the  wrong  note  to 
say,  "If  this  is  not  satisfactory,  we  will  adjust  it."  A 
person  reading  such  a  sentence  thinks  at  once,  "Of  course  it 
isn't  satisfactory;  they  don't  expect  it  to  be." 

357.  It  is  also  good  salesmanship  always  to  keep  one's 
temper,  no  matter  what  happens.  Even  when  dealing  with 
obdurate  cases,  one  gains  nothing  by  displaying  anger,  but 
merely  closes  the  door  to  future  sales.  Suaviter  in  modo, 
fortiter  in  re — soft  in  speech,  but  firm  in  action — is  a  golden 
rule.  The  person  who  blusters  in  his  correspondence  is 
worth  little  compared  to  the  man  who  is  restrained  in  speech, 
but  always  does  what  he  agrees  to  do. 

358.  In  all  such  matters  it  is  easy  to  form  habits.  The 
student  should  see  to  it  that  his  are  good  ones.  Perhaps 
he  will  be  a  trifle  self-conscious  at  first;  but  in  the  end  his 
facility  will  return,  and  the  letters  he  writes  will  be  far  better 
than  the  old  ones. 

EXERCISE  5. 

Write  five  of  the  following  sales-letters: 

1.  Interest  Mrs.  John  Doe,  19  Peoria  Street,  Kansas  City, 
Missouri,  in  a  kitchen  cabinet  or  sewing  machine. 

2.  Try  to  get  the  order  for  football  suits,  head  gears,  etc.,  that 
your  team  will  need  next  fall.  Address  the  letter  to  your  school 
Principal. 

3.  Interest  Mr.  John  Smith,  of  Peotone,  Illinois,  in  farm  tractors. 
You  know  that  he  is  a  successful  farmer  in  the  "Corn  belt,"  and 
usually  has  nearly  600  acres  in  this  one  crop  alone. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE     217 

4.  Interest  Mrs.  John  Smith,  of  Peotone,  in  a  washing 
machine.  You  know  that  it  is  hard  to  get  "help"  in  her  part  of 
the  country. 

5.  Interest  the  manager  of  a  taxicab  company  in  a  new  device 
for  keeping  wind-shields  clear  of  snow,  sleet,  etc. 

6.  Write  to  your  school  principal,  explaining  the  uses  of  a 
pencil-sharpener  for  which  you  are  agent. 

7.  Write  to  a  local  hardware  dealer,  interesting  him  in  a  device 
for  sharpening  the  knives  of  mowing  machines — something  that 
anyone  can  use  successfully. 

8.  Imagine  yourself  agent  for  a  small  electric  motor  that  can 
be  attached  to  a  sewing  machine.  Write  a  letter  to  a  housewife 
interesting  her  in  it. 

9.  Write  a  local  furniture  dealer  about  the  same  article. 

10.  Imagine  yourself  salesman  for  the  company  that  publishes 
your  dictionary.  Write  your  school  principal,  telling  the  merits 
of  the  book,  and  trying  to  get  an  order  for  the  entire  school. 

F.  Examples  of  Good  Business  Correspondence. 

359.  To  make  still  clearer  the  best  practise  of  today, 
we  append  the  following  specimen  letters.  They  are  not 
necessarily  ideal  in  all  respects,  and  certainly  should  not  be 
slavishly  copied.  But  they  are  free  from  gross  errors,  and 
illustrate  most  of  the  virtues  which  good  business  corre- 
spondence should  possess. 

1.     An  application  for  a  position. 

Mr.  J.  P.  Gough  tells  me  that  there  is  a  vacancy  in  your  staff 
of  salesmen.    Will  you  consider  me  an  applicant  for  the  position? 

I  am  thirty-seven  years  old,  married,  and  own  my  home  in  Doe- 
ville.     For  the  past  ten  years  I  have  been  on  the  road  in  Indiana 

and  Illinois  for  the company,  handling  their  lines  of  shoes, 

and  have  acquired  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  trade  in  this  terri- 
tory. The  enclosed  letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  — —  Company 
bears  witness  to  my  success  as  a  salesman. 

My  only  reason  for  wishing  a  new  position  at  this  time  is  the  fact 

that  the Company  is  discontinuing  the  manufacture  of  shoes. 

Rather  than  enter  a  field  with  which  I  am  unacquainted,  I  prefer 
to  seek  employment  with  another  shoe  firm. 


218  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

The  Kewanee  National  Bank  of  Doeville,  Illinois,  the  Commer- 
cial Club  of  Doeville,  or  any  officer  of  the Company,  will  inform 

you  concerning  my  character  and  reputation. 

If  you  will  grant  me  an  interview,  I  will  call  at  any  time  yon  may 
suggest.     My  telephone  is  Doeville  5992. 

(The  letter  is  specij&c,  dignified  in  tone,  and  gives  the  neces- 
sary information.  The  man  who  read  it  called  ''Doeville 
5992"  at  once,  and  arranged  for  an  interview.  Two  days 
later  the  salesman  was  at  work  for  the  new  company.) 

2.  An  adjustment  letter. 
(The  history  of  the  case  was  this :  the  manufacturers  had  sold 
a  gasoline  engine  to  Mr.  X,  a  Vermont  farmer.  The  engine 
reached  him  in  good  condition,  according  to  the  freight 
receipt,  but  when  it  was  in  place  in  his  barn  it  would  not 
start;  consequently  he  wrote  the  company  asking  what  to 
do.  The  first  letter  he  received  was  an  unfortunate  one, 
saying  that  whatever  was  wrong  must  be  his  fault,  and 
advising  him  to  get  a  friend  who  understood  engines  to  look 
it  over.  Thereupon  he  wrote  somewhat  angrily,  saying 
the  machine  was  "no  good,"  and  asking  for  the  return  of 
his  money.  The  company's  second  letter — here  printed — 
was  written  by  a  tactful  correspondent,  who  wished  to 
impress  Mr.  X  with  the  company's  fairness,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  persuade  him  to  keep  the  engine.  It  is  somewhat 
longer  than  it  would  have  been  under  other  circumstances.) 

Dear  Mr.  X: 

Thank  you  for  your  letters  about  the  engine.  "We  certainly 
do  not  want  to  take  your  money  for  something  that  is  "no  good, " 
and  if  you  still  wish  us  to,  we  will  send  you  a  check  at  once  for  all 
that  you  have  paid. 

But  perhaps  some  slight  adjustment  can  be  made  which  will 
result  in  the  engine's  running  well,  and  in  saving  you  the  trouble 
of  another  trip  to  the  freight  office.  Our  records  show  that  it  was 
tested  the  day  before  we  shipped  it,  and  ran  four  hours  without 
stopping.     It  ought  to  run  now. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE     219 

Rather  than  have  you  put  to  the  trouble  of  returning  it  to  us, 
we  should  much  prefer  to  have  our  representative,  Mr.  J.  B.  Adams, 
who  will  be  in  Greensboro  next  week,  look  it  over  with  you.  If 
you  and  he  decide  that  the  trouble  should  be  charged  to  us,  we 
will  take  the  old  engine  away,  and  either  send  a  new  one  or  return 
your  money. 

But  if  some  slight  replacement  will  make  it  as  good  as  new,  we 
will  furnish  the  parts  and  do  the  work  for  you,  in  your  barn,  and 
you  can  pay  us  or  not.     Does  this  seem  fair  to  you? 

By  the  way,  Mr.  Adams  can  tell  you  all  about  our  new  milker. 
Have  you  seen  one  yet? 

(The  merits  of  this  last  letter  are,  briefly: 

1.  It  begins  by  agreeing  to  do  what  the  customer  thinks 
he  wants  done. 

2.  It  suggests  —  what  proved  to  be  the  case  —  that 
perhaps  some  way  can  be  found  to  remedy  matters  without 
putting  the  customer  to  the  trouble  of  hauling  the  engine 
away. 

3.  It  makes  a  fair  offer,  which  any  reasonable  man  would 
appreciate;  in  fact,  it  leaves  the  customer  to  be  the  judge 
of  what  is  fair. 

4.  It  is  easy,  natural  in  tone,  and  free  from  anything 
that  could  possibly  give  offense. 

5.  By  emphasizing  the  firm's  desire  to  be  of  service,  and 
by  calling  attention  to  the  new  milker,  it  utilizes  the  oppor- 
tunity of  making  "every  letter  a  sales-letter.") 

3.     Collection  letters, 

A.  (A  simple  ''reminder,"  with  a  sales-letter  touch  at 
the  close.) 

Our  bookkeeper  tells  me  that  your  account  for  May  is  as  yet 
unpaid.  The  small  amount — $57.48 — is  not  in  itself  of  much  im- 
portance, and  may  have  shpped  your  mind.  May  we  have  a  check 
as  soon  as  convenient? 

Our  new  catalogue  of  winter  lines  is  going  to  you  today.  You 
will  find  much  in  it  that  will  interest  you. 


220  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

B.  (A  little  more  urgent.) 

You  remember  that  ten  days  ago  we  wrote  you  about  the  May 
account,  which  is  now  two  months  over-due. 

As  we  ourselves  are  often  borrowing  money  in  order  to  discount 
our  own  bills,  and  paying  interest  at  the  bank,  we  should  soon  be 
unable  to  extend  credit  to  our  customers  unless  they  met  their  own 
obligations  promptly.  Will  you  not  let  us  have  a  check  for  the 
amount — $57.48 — at  once? 

C.  (More  insistent.) 

In  reply  to  our  last  letter  you  promised  a  check  in  full  for  the 
May  account  within  five  days.  At  the  same  time  you  sent  an  order 
for  goods  amounting  to  $147.86,  for  which  please  accept  our  thanks. 
But  the  five  days  have  elapsed,  and  no  check  has  reached  us. 

Now  of  course,  Mr.  Jones,  we  are  glad  to  have  your  trade,  and 
hope  to  be  able  to  ship  the  order  promptly.  But  it  is  only  fair  to 
you  to  say  that  until  the  past  due  account  is  paid  in  full,  we  shall  be 
obliged  to  withhold  further  credit. 

The  amount  you  owe  us  is  so  small  that  you  cannot  afford  to 
let  it  go  any  longer.  Please  pin  your  check  for  $57.48  to  this  letter, 
and  return  it  to  me,  in  the  enclosed  stamped  envelope,  by  the  next 
mail.  I  shall  then  be  glad  to  0.  K.  your  recent  order,  which  will  be 
forwarded  at  once. 

D.  (Threatening  a  draft.) 

This  is  the  fourth  letter  we  have  written  about  your  May  account 
— $57.48 — on  which  you  have  as  yet  made  no  payment. 

Unless  we  receive  a  check  in  full  within  five  days,  we  shall  draw 
upon  you  through  your  bank. 

E.  (The  last  appeal — direct,  but  courteous.) 

Our  draft  of  October  10,  for  the  amount  of  your  May  account — • 
$57.48 — has  been  returned  to  us  by  your  bank,  unaccepted. 

We  feel  that  we  have  been  as  considerate  in  this  matter  as  we 
possibly  can  be,  in  fairness  to  our  customers  and  ourselves.  More- 
over, you  have  made  no  reply  to  either  of  our  last  two  letters. 
We  can  only  conclude  that  you  are  trying  to  evade  paying  what 
you  owe. 

Accordingly  we  shall  be  obliged  to  place  the  matter  in  the  hands 
of  our  attorney,  unless  we  receive  your  check  in  full  by  October  22. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    221 

4.     A  Sales-letter. 

Garage  repair  men  are  about  as  popular  as  dentists.  No  one 
ever  goes  to  see  them  till  he  is  in  trouble.  But  of  course  when  a 
tooth  really  aches,  or  the  car  just  won't  start,  then  the  man  whom 
we  hated  last  week  is  our  best  friend. 

Why  wait  till  the  trouble  has  come  before  consulting  the  doctor? 
Why  not  let  us  give  your  car  a  monthly — or  weekly — overhauling, 
making  all  adjustments  and  minor  repairs,  and  keeping  things 
generally  tuned  up?  The  charge  will  be  so  small  that  you  will 
wonder  we  can  afford  the  service. 

Bring  your  car  in  tomorrow,  and  we  will  make  a  survey  of  it,  on 
the  basis  of  which  we'll  name  a  definite  figure.  Of  course  there 
will  be  no  charge  for  this  first  examination,  and  it  alone  may  save 
you  a  smash-up. 

Don't  wait  till  something  goes  wrong — come  in  tomorrow,  and 
let  us  do  the  rest. 

(The  letter  opens  with  a  sentence  which  will  probably  catch 
the  reader's  interest;  it  is  persuasive  enough  to  overcome  the 
initial  objections  of  most  men,  and  it  closes,  as  all  sales- 
letters  should,  with  a  definite  suggestion  that  the  reader  act.) 

EXERCISE  6. 

Paying  careful  attention  to  the  matters  discussed  in  this  chapter, 
write  the  letters  demanded  by  the  following  situations  (do  not 
bother  about  addresses,  sal  tations,  or  signatures): 

1.  Order  the  following  articles:  one-half  dozen  No.  2  shaving- 
brushes,  at  78  cents  each;  3  dozen  cakes  No.  1  shaving  soap,  at 
$1.00  per  dozen;  2  dozen  boxes  ''Printemps"  talcum  powder,  at 
$1.85  per  dozen.  Send  check  in  full  with  the  order,  and  allow 
yourself  2%  for  cash. 

2.  Return  a  boy's  velocipede,  size  6,  which  is  too  small,  and 
order  a  size  8,  which  costs  $3.15  more  than  the  smaller  one.  Send 
the  money. 

3.  Return  a  bill  for  correction,  pointing  out  that  the  charge 
of  $47.50  for  a  dress  is  an  error,  since  it  was  included  in  the  last 
month's  bill  which  you  paid  in  full. 

4.  Acknowledge  an  order  of  one  bolt  of  silk,  but  point  out  that 
the  customer  failed  to  include  a  sample  or  to  give  the  catalogue 
number  of  the  silk. 


222  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

5.  When  the  sample  called  for  in  the  preceding  exercise  arrives, 
you  find  the  goods  are  out  of  stock.  Send  samples  of  the  two 
shades  nearest  in  color  to  that  desired,  and  ask  whether  you  may 
substitute  one  of  them. 

6.  Write  to  the  manufacturers  saying  that  the  separator  they 
have  sent  you  was  short  one  piece:  the  handle. 

7.  Acknowledge  the  preceding  letter,  and  say  you  have  sent  the 
handle  by  parcel-post, 

8.  A  customer  complains  that  a  suit  he  bought  of  you  does  not 
fit,  and  asks  what  to  do,  since  he  is  now  five  hundred  miles  from 
your  shop. 

9.  Acknowledge  the  preceding  letter,  and  ask  the  customer  to 
have  the  ill-fitting  suit  altered  by  a  local  tailor.  You  will  pay  the 
bill  as  soon  as  you  receive  it. 

10.  The  manufacturers  have  sent  you  four  30  by  3  inch  tires; 
you  ordered  30  by  3^4,  and  do  not  wish  the  others.  Ask  what  to 
do  with  those  sent,  and  urge  that  the  others  be  forwarded  at 
once. 

11.  Reply  to  the  preceding  letter,  expressing  regret  at  your 
mistake.  Suggest  that  the  dealer  can  find  a  market  for  the  30  by  3 
tires,  but  say  that  you  are  sending  the  others  at  once.  Allow  him 
60  days  to  pay  for  the  first  shipment,  if  he  cares  to  keep  it. 

12.  A  dealer  owes  you  $178.50,  that  is  now  two  months  overdue. 
Ask  for  payment.  At  the  same  time  suggest  that  he  will  be  in- 
terested in  the  fine  of  farm  tools  your  salesman  will  show  him  on 
his  next  visit. 

13.  Acknowledge  the  preceding  letter,  and  send  a  check  for 
$100.00  on  account.  The  rest  you  will  paji  as  soon  as  you  have 
made  some  of  your  own  collections. 

14.  Acknowledge  the  check  for  $100.00,  sent  with  the  preceding 
letter,  and  express  the  hope  that  the  merchant's  collections  will 
be  easy,  for  you  too  need  to  meet  your  bills,  and  want  the  balance 
due  settled  as  soon  as  possible. 

15.  Follow  up  the  last  letter,  which  brought  no  response,  with 
one  a  little  more  insistent  in  tone. 

16.  Write  another,  pointing  out  that  the  merchant  has  not 
acknowledged  either  of  your  last  two  letters,  nor  yet  made  the 
payment  due.    Enclose  a  stamped  envelope  for  a  reply. 

17.  Send  the  check  for  balance  due  on  the  preceding  transaction, 
and  explain  that  your  failure  to  be  more  prompt  has  been  due  to 
illness. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    223 

18.  Acknowledge  receipt  of  check  in  full  for  balance  due,  and 
express  regret  that  you  did  not  know  of  the  merchant's  illness. 
Wish  him  good  luck. 

19.  Imagine  yourself  an  agent  for  canoes.  Write  a  sales-letter 
to  a  man  whom  you  know  to  be  an  enthusiastic  camper. 

20.  Write  a  sales-letter  to  a  city  merchant,  pointing  out  the 
usefulness  of  a  small  delivery  truck  for  which  you  are  agent. 

21.  Assume  that  you  are  an  agent  for  the  Ford  car.  Write  to 
a  farmer,  trying  to  interest  him  in  buying  one.  You  know  that 
he  lives  eight  miles  from  the  market  where  he  sells  his  garden  truck. 
Call  his  attention  to  your  line  of  small  trucks. 


11.    Friendly  Letters. 

360.  The  object  of  friendly  letters  is  not  to  sell  goods  or 
to  collect  money;  they  have  only  the  most  distant  connection 
with  the  world  of  business.  Consequently  one  need  not 
worry  about  their  "sales-value."  But  because  they  are 
intimate  and  personal,  one  should  take  as  much  pains  with 
them  as  with  the  letters  dictated  at  the  office. 

361.  Consider  first  the  arrangement  of  a  friendly  letter  on 
the  page.  The  formal  address  is  usually  omitted;  instead  of 
following  the  business  usage  and  writing 

James  B.  Doe,  Esq., 
New  Haven,  Connecticut. 

My  dear  Mr.  Doe: 

you  begin  at  once  with  the  salutation,  varying  the  phrasing 
in  accordance  with  the  degree  of  intimacy  you  feel  it  appro- 
priate to  express,  thus: 

My  dear  Mr.  Doe: 
Dear  Mr.  Doe: 
Dear  Doe: 
Dear  James: 
Dear  Jim: 


224  THE  ENGLISH   OF  BUSINESS 

Similarly,  the  close  and  signature  are  usually  somewhat 
modified.     Instead  of  the  conventional 

Yours  very  truly, 
Richard  Roe 

it  is  customary  to  use  such  phrases  as 

Cordially  yours, 
^  Sincerely  yours. 

As  ever,  yours. 

The  signature  may  vary  from  the  full  ''Richard  Roe" 
through  ''Roe"  to  "Richard"  or  "Dick."  A  married 
woman  signs  her  own  name,  not  her  husband's:  "Mary 
Adams  Doe"  or  "Mary,"  not  "Mrs.  James  B.  Doe." 

362.  The  location  on  the  page  of  the  place  and  date  of 
writing  is  also  variable.  Most  people  p\it  them  at  the  top 
of  the  letter  in  approximately  the  place  they  would  occupy 
in  a  business  letter;  others  place  them  in  the  lower  left-hand 
corner  of  the  sheet,  after  the  signature,  thus: 

As  ever,  yours, 
James  B.  Doe 

Boston,  Massachusetts, 
28  October  1919. 

If  you  use  a  letter  paper  that  has  an  engraved  heading,  show- 
ing the  location  of  your  home,  placing  the  date  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sheet  gives  better  balance  to  the  paper.  Otherwise  it  is 
perhaps  wiser  to  put  the  place  and  date  at  the  top  of  the 
page,  thus : 

Madison,  Wisconsin, 
28  October  1919. 
Dear  Mr.  Roe: 

363.  The  salutation  "Dear  Friend,"  or  "Friend  Jim," 
and  the  close, 

Your  friend, 
James  B.  Doe. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE    225 

are  not  used  today.  Similarly,  one  should  never  be  guilty  of 
mixing  in  one  letter  the  phraseology  of  the  business  and  the 
social  letter.     Such  hybrids  as  the  following  are  never  proper : 

James  B.  Doe, 
Chicago,  Illinois. 
Dear  James: 
or, 

Dear  John: 


Yours  very  truly, 

Richard  Roe 

364.  The  body  of  a  friendly  letter  varies  from  a  few  lines 
of  informal  invitation  to  several  pages  of  narrative.  In  any 
case  it  should  be  simple  and  natural.  Beware  of  the  affecta- 
tion which  marks  the  letters  of  the  sentimentalist.  Talk  to 
your  friend  in  your  letter  as  you  would  face  to  face;  don't 
tire  him  with  uninteresting  details;  don't  afflict  him  with 
platitudinous  comments  on  your  sensations. 

365.  So  far  as  stationery  is  concerned,  be  modest.  White 
or  gray  paper,  of  the  ordinary  sizes,  with  envelopes  to  match, 
is  the  best.  Avoid  the  gilt-edged  and  deckel-edged  mon- 
strosities that  appear  each  Christmas  on  the  counters  of  some 
department  stores.  If  you  wish  a  die  cut  for  your  address, 
go  to  a  good  dealer  and  select  one  which  is  clear  and  un- 
ostentatious; let  the  engraving  be  done  in  black  or  dark  blue. 

366.  The  address  on  the  envelope  does  not  differ  in  any 
essential  respects  from  that  on  the  envelope  of  a  business 
letter.     The  "return  card"  is,  however,  frequently  omitted. 

367.  The  following  letters  are  models  only  in  that  they 
illustrate  current  usage  as  regards  form,  salutations,  close, 
etc.  Never  copy  the  phrasing  of  another  person's  letter; 
to  do  so  will  rob  your  own  of  the  spontaneity  and  naturalness 
which  should  be  their  greatest  charm. 


226  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

(1) 

Evanston,  Illinois 
28  October  1919 
Dear  Mrs.  Roe: 

Will  you  and  Mr.  Roe  dine  with  us  at  seven  o'clock  on  Tuesday 
next?  My  sister  May,  and  her  husband  Captain  Brown,  are  to  be 
with  us,  and  I  want  them  to  meet  you. 

Cordially, 

Mary  A.  Doe. 

(2) 

5746  Dorchester  Avenue 

Chicago  Illinois 

Dear  Mrs.  Doe: 

It  will  give  Mr.  Roe  and  me  inuch  pleasure  to  dine  with  you  at 
seven  o'clock  on  Tuesday  next,  and  to  meet  Captain  and  Mrs. 
Brown. 

Cordially  yours, 

Jane  B.  Roe. 
30  October  1919 

(3) 

^  '  5746  Dorchester  Avenue 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Dear  Mrs.  Doe: 

Mr.  Roe  and  I  regret  very  much  that  we  shall  be  unable  to  dine 

with  you  on  Tuesday  next,  as  we  are  leaving  for  Boston  tomorrow 

evening.    We  shall  look  forward  to  meeting  Captain  and  Mrs. 

Brown  another  time. 

Sincerely, 

Jane  B.  Roe. 

30  October  1919 

(4) 

^  ^  Boston,  Massachusetts 

28  October  1919 

Dear  James: 

My  cousin  Arthur  Smith,  of  whom  I  have  told  you,  is  to  be  in 

Boston  for  a  few  hours  on  next  Monday,  the  3rd  of  November. 

Will  you  join  us  at  dinner  at  the  University  Club,  at  half-past  six? 

Yours, 

Dick. 


A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  CORRESPONDENCE     227 

(5) 

5746  Dorchester  Avenue, 
Chicago,  Illinois, 
October  28,  1919. 
Dear  Mr.  Erickson: 

When  you  were  talking  about  Conrad's  novels  last  evening,  I 
tried  to  remember  the  title  of  the  volume  of  his  personal  reminiscen- 
ces which  I  wanted  you  to  read.  Well,  as  soon  as  you  had  left  the 
house  the  name  flashed  back  into  my  memory:  The  Mirror  of  the 
Sea.  Get  it  as  soon  as  you  can.  If  you  like  him  for  his  fiction, 
you  will — I  started  to  say — love  him  for  this! 

Cordially, 

George  B.  Smith. 

368.  Formal  invitations,  in  the  third  person,  are  not  as 
common  as  they  were  fifty  years  ago.  But  if  you  receive 
one,  propriety  demands  that  you  answer  it  in  the  same  style, 
thus: 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ralph  Jones  request  the  pleasure  of  Mr.  John 
Smith's  company  at  dinner  on  Thursday  evening,  January  the 
twenty-fourth,  at  eight  o'clock. 

Mr.  John  Smith  accepts  with  pleasure  the  invitation  of  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Ralph  Jones  for  dinner  on  Thursday  evening,  January  the 
twenty-fourth,  at  eight  o'clock. 

EXERCISE  7. 

Keeping  in  mind  what  you  have  just  read  concerning  the  form 
and  style  appropriate  to  friendly  letters,  write  any  three  of  the 
following: 

1.  A  steamer  letter  to  a  friend  leaving  New  York  on  a  given 
date  on  the  "  Olympic."    Write  both  the  envelope  and  the  letter. 

2.  A  letter  to  a  classmate  who  has  been  ill  in  a  local  hospital  for 
several  weeks. 

3.  A  letter  to  a  young  French  student  of  English  in  Paris, 
introducing  yourself  (you  have  been  given  the  name  and  address 
by  your  teacher)  and  suggesting  a  correspondence. 

4.  A  letter  to  the  same  person  replying  to  questions  concerning 
the  methods  of  studying  EngUsh  Uterature  used  in  your  school. 


228  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

5.  A  letter  to  your  father  who  is  out  of  town  on  a  business  trip, 
asking  his  advice  about  taking  a  job  for  the  summer  vacation. 

6.  You  have  just  returned  from  a  visit  at  the  home  of  a  friend's 
mother  in  a  neighboring  city.  Write  a  letter  thanking  her  for  her 
hospitality. 

7.  You  have  just  seen  an  interesting  play  (or  read  an  interesting 
book),  and  in  your  enthusiasm  you  wish  to  recommend  it  to  a  friend 
who  lives  in  a  distant  city.    Write  the  letter. 

8.  You  are  planning  to  go  to  a  certain  college  next  year.  Write 
a  letter  to  a  friend  who  is  already  there  telling  him  of  your  intention 
and  asking  him  for  information  about  living  conditions,  tuition,  etc. 

9.  You  are  making  up  a  theater  party  for  the  coming  Saturday 
evening.  Write  a  note  asking  one  of  your  friends  to  become  a 
member  of  the  party. 

10.  You  receive  a  formal  invitation  to  a  dinner  at  the  home  of  an 
acquaintance,  but  are  prevented  by  illness  from  accepting.  Write 
the  invitation  and  your  reply. 

11.  You  are  giving  a  birthday  party.  Write  notes  of  invitation 
to  two  of  your  friends,  fitting  the  style  of  each  note  to  its  recipient. 

12.  Your  older  brother,  now  a  Senior  in  college,  has  always  been 
particularly  interested  in  Enghsh.  Write  a  letter  telHng  him  of 
the  work  you  are  now  doing  in  your  Enghsh  course. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
TALKING  IN  PUBLIC. 

369.  Nearly  all  men  and  women  who  attain  positions  of 
responsibility  are  sometimes  called  upon  to  speak  in  public. 
Any  salesman  is  dependent  more  or  less  upon  his  ability  to 
talk  intelligently  and  convincingly.  It  is  to  aid  persons  of 
this  sort  that  the  present  chapter  is  designed. 

370.  The  student  who  is  seriously  interested  in  the 
fascinating  art  of  public  speech  will,  of  course,  look  for  more 
elaborate  treatment  of  the  subject  than  is  possible  here. 
Such  books  as  E.  DuB.  Shurter's  Public  Speaking  (Allyn  & 
Bacon),  or  J.  A.  Winan's  Public  Speaking  (Century)  should 
be  on  his  table.  But  even  this  serious  student  will  do  well 
to  begin  his  work  by  reading  over  the  simple  practical  sugges- 
tions that  are  given  here,  going  on  afterwards  to  more  inten- 
sive examination  of  the  theory  and  practise  of  the  art. 

371.  The  most  profitable  approach  to  the  matter  will  be 
through  an  examination  of  the  common  failings — those  clogs 
and  handicaps  which  keep  many  a  man  from  success. 
If  such  an  attack  seems  too  negative,  it  may  be  justified 
from  the  experience  of  most  men  who  talk  for  the  first  time 
in  public.  They  are  conscious  of  their  failings;  the  audience 
is  conscious  of  them  too.  One  of  America's  most  distin- 
guished manufacturers  made  his  first  speech  at  a  meeting 
presided  over  by  Chauncey  M.  Depew.  At  the  close  of  the 
session  the  speaker,  conscious  that  he  had  done  his  part  ill, 
said  to  the  veteran  chairman,  "What  did  I  do  that  was 
wrong?"  "Why,"  Mr.  Depew  is  said  to  have  answered, 
"You  didn't  do  one  thing  that  was  right."  He  had  illus- 
trated all  the  mistakes  that  beginners  can  make. 

229 


230  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

372.  What  are  these  common  failings?  Slovenly  think- 
ing is  the  worst;  lack  of  vocabulary,  poor  memory,  stage 
fright,  poor  voice,  poor  enunciation,  and  that  strange  lack  of 
persuasiveness  noticeable  in  the  talks  of  some  men  who  have 
all  the  technique  of  the  speaker  —  these  are  the  chief  pitfalls 
to  be  avoided. 

I.    Clear  Thinking. 

373.  Inability  to  think  clearly  is  the  greatest  handicap  to 
a  speaker.  It  is  a  source  of  irritation  to  his  hearers,  who, 
if  they  are  intelligent,  approve  instinctively  of  clear-cut 
reasoning  and  well-ordered  argument.  Lincoln  tells  how  as 
a  boy  he  lay  awake  in  his  second-story  bedroom,  Ustening  to 
the  arguments  of  his  father's  friends  in  the  room  below. 
Because  these  men  did  not  think  straight  they  could  not  talk 
coherently;  and  the  boy  upstairs  was  annoyed  by  this  nightly 
display  of  poor  logic.  --^   .  --  --.  ^j, 

374.  To  be  sure,  man  is  not  a  logic-machine;  he  is  sus- 
ceptible to  suggestion  as  well  as  to  argument;  logic  alone 
cannot  be  depended  on  to  persuade  him  to  act.  But  clear 
thinking  is  the  foundation  to  which  the  other  qualities  of 
the  speaker  should  be  added.  It  is  worth  much  to  realize 
this  truth. 

375.  Slovenly  thinking  is  often  connected  with  lack  of 
ideas  about  the  subject  under  discussion.  If  a  man  knows, 
he  will  probably  think  clearly;  at  leasfc,  he  will  not  be  bothered 
by  finding  breaks  in  the  line  that  he  is  too  ignorant  to  bridge. 
But  if  he  does  not  know,  he  will  be  no  better  off  than  the 
high-school  orator  who  remembered  his  introduction  and 
conclusion,  but  forgot  the  body  of  his  speech.  Do  what  he 
will  to  conceal  it,  his  ignorance  will  betray  him. 

376.  But  sometimes  well-informed  people  think  poorly; 
there  is  no  logical  arrangement  or  development  in  their  ideas. 
The  result  is  confusion.    Many  an  expert  who  in  answer 


TALKING  IN  PUBLIC  231 

to  direct  questions  on  the  witness-stand  astonishes  the  jury 
by  liis  comprehensive  knowledge,  would  be  unable  to  put  his 
knowledge  systematically  before  those  jurymen  without  the 
aid  of  his  attorney's  interrogations. 

377.  Let  the  student  assume  for  the  moment  that  he 
belongs  to  this  class  of  well-informed  but  somewhat  dis- 
orderly thinkers.  How  can  he  improve  his  power  of  reason- 
ing? Well,  the  process  will  be  different  with  different  people, 
but  one  suggestion  will  be  of  benefit  to  every  one :  he  should 
think  the  subject  through  as  carefully  as  he  can,  before  he  is 
to  speak,  and  use  a  pencil  and  paper;  he  should  put  his  ideas 
down  in  black  and  white,  see  the  thing  all  at  once  in  outline. 
The  mere  physical  act  of  writing  will  serve  as  a  check  on  his 
perhaps  too  agile  mind,  and  will  steady  it  in  its  task  of 
arrangement. 

378.  Of  course  the  student  must  test  his  various  steps 
as  he  takes  them.  He  must  go  slowly,  as  an  Alpine  climber 
cuts  his  steps  in  the  ice,  never  relinquishing  one  foothold 
till  he  is  certain  of  the  next.  He  should  test  the  arrange- 
ment, the  grouping,  of  his  ideas,  jotting  down  a  phrase  or 
two  for  each  point,  and  then  classifying  them:  1,  3,  and  7 
seem  to  belong  together;  2,  4,  and  5  are  obviously  related. 
Then  let  him  group  them  again,  renumber  them,  and  test 
this  second  result  as  carefully  as  he  did  the  first. 

379.  For  this  preliminary  analysis  of  the  material  some 
people  advise  the  use  of  small  cards  or  slips  of  paper,  each  of 
which  will  contain  a  single  topic  or  idea.  These  cards — like 
those  we  recommend  in  Chapter  VII — can  be  sorted  and 
rearranged  like  a  hand  at  bridge,  till  an  order  which  is  satis- 
factory finally  appears.  Others  prefer  to  put  all  their  notes 
on  one  sheet,  and  to  make  a  new  outline  for  each  revision. 
Both  methods  have  their  advantages.  Cards  make  re- 
arrangement easy;  the  large  outline  helps  one  to  see  the  sub- 
ject as  a  whole.    The  ideal  plan  is  to  combine  the  two, 


232  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

making  the  first  rough  outline  on  a  single  sheet,  and  then 
working  out  the  finer  subdivisions  by  the  use  of  loose  slips. 
But  whichever  method  a  man  prefers,  the  important  thing  is 
for  him  to  write  while  he  is  thinking,  and  to  test  what  he 
has  written  from  many  different  angles. 

380.  Oftentimes  slovenly  thinking  manifests  itself  in  a 
speaker's  inabiUty  to  get  to  the  point  of  his  remarks,  and  in 
an  equally  painful  inabihty  to  stop  when  he  is  through. 
Long-drawn-out  introductions  and  conclusions  tire  an  audi- 
ence; no  matter  how  cogent  the  main  argument  may  be,  few 
people  like  to  Hsten  to  footless  afterthoughts  or  irrelevant 
preambles.  A  dog  turns  round  and  round  before  lying  down 
because  there  survive  in  him  habits  and  instincts  developed 
through  long  ages  of  savage  life.  The  speaker  who  wastes 
the  time  of  his  audience  in  similar  aimless  circlings  has  no 
such  valid  excuse. 

381.  These  common  but  painful  faiUngs  are  due  in  part 
to  a  speaker's  inabiUty  to  put  himself  in  the  position  of  his 
audience.  He  must  remember  that  success  will  not  come  to 
him  in  full  measure  till  he  has  developed  this  power.  Swift 
could  write  pamphlets  that  set  all  England  agog  with  interest 
because  he  sensed  his  audience  perfectly.  Roosevelt  never 
failed  to  "size  up"  his  crowd  before  beginning  a  speech;  he 
had  the  journalist's  and  dramatist's  abihty  to  appreciate 
how  it  would  all  seem  to  the  other  fellow.  The  average  man 
will  probably  fall  far  short  of  the  skill  attained  by  such 
masters  of  the  art  of  persuasion;  but  he  can  help  himself  not  a 
httle  if  he  will  only  realize  the  importance  of  anticipating  the 
reaction  of  his  audience,  of  listening  to  himself,  as  impersonally 
and  objectively  as  possible,  before  actually  imposing  himself 
upon  that  audience. 

382.  But  inability  to  get  to  the  point  of  a  speech,  or  to 
stop  when  one  is  through,  indicates  more  than  a  failure  to 
sense  the  audience;  it  is  usually  excellent  evidence  of  poor 


TALKING  IN  PUBLIC     .  233 

analysis  of  the  whole  question.  The  speaker  has  not  decided 
upon  the  most  important  point;  he  has  allowed  himself  to 
ramble  on  through  an  aimless  talk,  trusting  to  providence  and 
the  intuition  of  his  hearers  to  extract  the  kernel  of  fact  from 
the  shell  of  verbiage.  Perhaps  his  confidence  will  be  justified; 
it  is  not  safe,  however,  to  presume  too  far.  It  is  much  better 
to  follow  the  example  of  Benjamin  Franklin  once  more,  of 
whom  John  Adams  said  that  he  never  spoke  for  five  minutes 
in  the  Continental  Congress  w:ithout  ''putting  his  shoulder 
to  the  hub  of  the  wheel."  His  scientific  mind  analyzed 
things  in  advance;  when  he  talked  he  went  straight  to  the 
heart  of  the  question,  leaving  the  nonessentials  to  be  dis- 
cussed by  other  persons. 

383.  "But,"  you  answer,  "I  have  not  the  genius  of  a 
Roosevelt  or  a  Franklin;  what  good  is  there  in  holding  up 
such  examples  to  me,  plain  John  Smith?  How  can  I  get  any 
help  from  these  geniuses?"  The  answer  is  simple:  by  apply- 
ing to  your  own  problems,  with  all  the  skill  that  you  can 
command,  the  methods  which  they  used.  Study  your  audi- 
ence in  advance;  ask  questions  about  your  material;  decide 
what  is  the  most  important  thing  you  have  to  say;  decide 
how  best  to  use  the  precious  first  two  minutes,  and  the  equally 
precious  last  one.  Very  probably  Franklin  did  not  go  through 
such  a  process  every  time  he  rose  in  Congress;  but  it  is  cer- 
tain that  during  his  early  years  he  trained  himself  consciously 
and  carefully  in  just  such  analytical  methods,  so  that  by 
1775  his  mind  instinctively  made  the  analyses  necessary  for 
successful  argument. 

384.  Of  course  in  such  matters  there  is  no  golden  rule  of 
procedure.  No  amount  of  preliminary  analysis  can  abso- 
lutely insure  a  man  against  talking  too  long;  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  moment  may  overwhelm  his  previous  good  intentions, 
and  start  his  speech  down  the  track  like  a  wild  engine,  which 
nothing  but  a  wreck  or  exhaustion  can  stop.     But  something 


234  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

he  may  do  by  way  of  ''Safety  First"  precautions.  For 
instance,  the  business  man,  addressing  business  men,  can 
hardly  do  better  than  follow  the  example  of  many  French 
writers,  who  make  their  introduction  state  the  whole  thesis 
in  a  few  sentences,  then  develop  the  argument  with  all  the 
force  and  cogency  that  they  can  bring  to  bear,  and  at  as 
great  length  as  the  circumstances  warrant,  and  finally,  in 
a  brief  conclusion,  sum  up  the  whole  matter  and  clinch  the 
last  nail.  He  tells  what  he  is  going  to  do;  he  does  it  as  well 
as  he  can;  he  tells  what  he  has  done:  here  are  the  brief- 
maker's  introduction,  main  argument,  and  conclusion.  Given 
such  a  simple  plan,  and  careful  analysis  of  the  material  in 
advance,  the  chances  are  that  no  one  will  tire  his  listeners 
by  slovenly  argument  or  excessive  discursiveness. 

385.  Another  manifestation  of  slovenly  thinking  appears 
in  the  verbosity,  the  ''high  falutin"  phraseology,  the  exces- 
sive use  of  ijpetical  quotation  or  humorous  anecdote,  the 
general  "  windiness, ''  of  some  speakers.  The  political  stump- 
speaker  who  "lets  the  eagle  scream"  on  the  Fourth  of  July 
is  of  this  sort.  With  little  to  say,  he  uses  ten  words  where 
three  would  do,  and  conceals — as  well  as  he  can — the  absence 
of  ideas  under  a  mass  of  verbiage. 

386.  Unfortunately  this  sort  of  public  speech  is  not  the 
prerogative  of  the  politician  alone.  Ministers,  college 
professors,  labor  leaders,  and  presidents  of  commercial 
associations  are  all  numbered  among  the  victims  of  the  dis- 
ease, which  seems  to  be  almost  endemic  in  America.  The 
business  man  should  shun  this  sort  of  pubhc  utterance.  If 
in  his  talking  he  is  satisfied  to  make  a  noise  and  to  occupy 
the  platform  for  half  an  hour,  then  perhaps  he  need  not 
worry  about  the  insignificant  matters  of  sense  and  intelligi- 
bility. But  if  his  purpose  in  speaking  is  to  implant  ideas  in 
the  minds  of  other  men,  to  move  other  men  to  action,  then 
it  behooves  him  to  be  wary.     "C/se  no  unnecessary  words": 


TALKING  IN  PUBLIC  235 

once  more  the  old  advice  is  the  best.  Clearness,  simplicity, 
concreteness — these  are  the  quaUties  which  make  the  strong- 
est appeal. 

387.  In  general,  then,  for  the  person  who  is  bothered  by 
inability  to  think  things  through  straight,  the  best  remedy 
is  to  know  his  subject  and  to  plan — plan— plan.  It  does  not 
matter  much  how,  so  long  as  he  uses  a  pencil,  and  revises  what 
he  first  puts  down.  Unnecessary  words  as  well  as  irrelevant 
ideas  must  be  discarded;  the  central  theme  must  stand  out 
in  clear  relief,  propped  up  with  whatever  facts  and  argu- 
ments seem  necessary.  And  always  a  speaker  must  guard 
against  the  notion  that  because  he  is  to  talk  for  only  a  few 
minutes  he  need  not  put  much  time  into  preparation.  Henry 
Ward  Beecher,  whose  fame  as  an  orator  was  international, 
is  credited  with  saying  that  if  he  was  to  talk  all  the  morning 
at  a  revival  he  needed  no  preparation  at  all;  for  a  sermon 
of  half  an  hour  he  needed  a  week,  and  for  a  five-minute  after- 
dinner  speech  three  months.  The  briefer  the  talk,  the  rhore 
need  there  will  be  for  using  every  minute  effectively;  in  other 
words,  the  more  need  for  careful  preliminary  planning. 

388.  With  such  ideas  most  people  will  probably  agree, 
while  at  the  same  time  they  may  object  that  putting  these 
ideas  into  practise  is  virtually  impossible.  How  can  the 
man  who  is  called  unexpectedly  from  his  office  to  talk  to  a 
committee  of  workmen,  how  can  he  put  down  anything  in 
the  form  of  an  outline,  much  less  revise  and  rewrite  as  we 
suggest? 

389.  Well,  as  we  have  already  said,  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  a  guarantee  policy  against  slovenly  thinking  or  ineffective 
speaking.  But  this  is  sure :  if  a  person  makes  it  a  rule  to  plan 
when  he  does  have  the  chance,  his  mind  will  instinctively 
acquire  the  habit  of  shaping  its  ideas  in  logical  order,  and 
this  habit  will  stand  him  in  well  when  he  is  unexpectedly 
called  to  his  feet.     It  is  astonishing  to  see  how  fast  the 


236  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

trained  mind  will  analyze  and  coordinate  facts.  Five 
minutes,  one  minute,  will  be  time  enough  for  shaping  some 
sort  of  a  plan.  Indeed,  if  one  has  improved  his  opportuni- 
ties, he  will  find  that  even  when  he  is  given  no  warning  at  all 
he  can  formulate,  as  he  is  uttering  his  first  sentence  of  reply 
to  the  chairman,  the  ''one"  ''two"  "three"  of  the  outline  he 
did  not  have  time  to  make. 

EXERCISE  1. 

On  one  of  the  subjects  listed  in  Exercise  2,  below,  make  first  a 
detailed  plan  for  a  talk  of  fifteen  minutes  before  the  class,  and  then 
reduce  this  plan  to  a  skeleton  outline  which  you  could  put  on  a 
small  card. 

II.    Vocabulary. 

390.  Another  common  source  of  annoyance  to  the  aver- 
age speaker,  as  well  as  to  his  audiences,  is  lack  of  vocabulary. 
At  least,  it  is  to  this  that  he  often  attributes  his  hesitancy; 
he  has  the  facts  in  mind — of  this  he  is  sure.  He  "knows 
what  he  means,  but  he  cannot  express  himself." 

391.  Usually  the  man  who  takes  refuge  in  this  apology 
deceives  himself.  Instead  of  blaming  his  vocabulary  he 
should  say,  "Gentlemen,  I  do  not  know  enough  on  this 
subject  to  talk  intelligently  about  it;  pray  pardon  me  for 
having  occupied  your  time  so  footlessly;"  or,  "I  have  a 
vague  idea  that  something  should  be  done,  but  have  not  yet 
thought  things  through."  Usually  it  is  lack  of  ideas,  not  of 
words,  that  interferes  with  successful  speaking. 

392.  But  as  we  have  already  pointed  out  in  Chapter  IV, 
a  student  can  do  not  a  little  to  facilitate  the  expression  of  his 
ideas  by  making  his  vocabulary  as  full  and  rich  as  possible. 
Given  the  tools,  he  will  probably  use  them;  without  them,  he 
will  be  relatively  helpless.  The  suggestions  contained  in 
those  earlier  sections  apply  with  equal  cogency  to  the  problem 
of  the  speaker:  he  should  learn  as  many  new  words  as  he 


TALKING  IN  PUBLIC  237 

can,  and  use  them  till  they  become  part  of  his  living  vocabu- 
lary. Words  embalmed  in  a  notebook  are  of  no  value;  only 
those  that  live  in  one's  consciousness  and  grow  strong  through 
use  are  really  part  of  one's  equipment.  Interestingly 
enough,  too,  the  task  of  enlarging  a  vocabulary  by  adding  a 
few  words  each  week  need  not  be  a  bore;  it  can  be  made  a 
source  of  much  genuine  pleasure.  Certainly  it  is  a  better 
way  of  passing  the  time  on  an  "L"  train  or  in  the  subway 
than  puzzHng  over  the  headlines  in  a  neighbor's  paper. 

in.    Memory. 

393.  A  poor  memory  is  a  handicap  to  any  speaker.  Who- 
ever reads  the  papers  knows  how  many  "memory-doctors" 
there  are  in  the  market,  offering  to  sell  formulas  and  recipes 
which  will  enable  the  buyer  to  remember  the  names  of  all 
the  persons  he  meets,  their  telephone  numbers,  and  such 
worthless  bits  of  information  as  the  populations  of  the 
hundred  largest  cities  in  the  world,  The  supply  of  such 
advertised  remedies  being  abundant,  there  must  be  a  demand 
for  this  sort  of  commodity;  poor  memories  must  be  general, 
and  the  people  who  suffer  from  them  must  realize  that  they 
are  at  a  disadvantage  in  the  business  world. 

394.  Without  utterly  condemning  such  methods  of 
memory  training,  we  would  point  out  that  the  verdict  of  the 
psychologist  is  not  flattering  to  them  or  their  vendors. 
President  Walter  Dill  Scott,  whose  work  in  the  psychology  of 
business  is  known  over  all  the  country,  says  that  these 
systems  are  '* usually  comparatively  useless,  and  are  entirely 
useless  except  in  so  far  as  they  assist  one  in  arranging  facts 
systematically  and  in  taking  interest  in  them."^  System, 
interest:  these,  the  psychologist  says,  are  the  greatest  aids  to 
memory.  What  does  this  mean  to  the  student  or  business 
man  who  wishes  to  speak  in  public? 

J  The  Psychology  of  Public  Speaking,  Pearson  Brothers,  p.  206. 


238  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

395.  First  of  all,  the  psychologist's  emphasis  on  the  value 
of  system  merely  enforces,  from  another  point  of  view,  what 
we  have  said  so  many  times  about  the  value  of  a  plan.  As 
soon  as  a  speaker  has  formed  a  systematic  plan,  a  logical 
plan,  in  which  A  leads  to  B,  B  to  C,  and  so  on,  he  has  lightened 
the  burden  on  his  memory.  When  there  is  a  logical  connec- 
tion between  the  various  points,  or  when  one  suggests  its 
successor,  the  mind  carries  over  instinctively  through  the 
various  members  of  the  series.  Otherwise  the  memory  alone 
must  be  depended  upon  to  bridge  the  gaps. 

396.  Moreover,  the  chances  are  that  while  a  person  is 
working  on  his  fundamental  plan  his  interest  in  what  he  has 
to  say  will  be  growing,  and  thus  in  a  second  way  he  will  be 
simplifying  his  task.  For  whatever  makes  for  interest 
reUeves  the  memory. 

397.  One  or  two  further  practical  suggestions  may  be  in 
point.  No  one  should  make  his  task  unnecessarily  hard. 
It  is  almost  always  unwise  to  commit  a  speech  to  memory. 
Most  people  in  an  audience  detect  the  written  out  and 
memorized  address,  no  matter  how  careful  the  speaker  may 
be  to  conceal  it.  And  few  people  are  as  much  interested 
in  this  sort  of  formal  utterance  as  in  the  simple,  straight- 
forward talk  that  comes  fresh  from  the  speaker's  mind. 
Moreover,  if  a  speaker  has  committed  his  address  to  memory, 
he  has  left  himself  always  open  to  a  sudden  collapse — ^than 
which  few  things  are  more  mortifying. 

398.  Indeed,  it  is  usually  unnecessary  to  write  out  in  full 
even  a  somewhat  formal  address,  unless  one  is  to  read  it — 
a  course  which  should  generally  be  avoided.  There  is  a  sort 
of  pleasing  honesty  about  reading  a  speech;  all  things  con- 
sidered, it  is  a  better  plan  than  to  memorize  it  and  to  try 
to  disguise  the  fact.  But  when  a  speaker's  eyes  are  held  to 
his  manuscript,  he  loses  contact  with  the  audience,  and  the 
very  formality  of  the  effort  robs  it  of  some  of  its  effectiveness. 


TALKING  IN  PUBLIC  239 

399.  Probably  the  best  plan  for  the  ordinary  speaker  is  to 
make  a  fairly  elaborate  outline,  which  shall  include  the  facts 
and  figures  necessary  for  the  argument.  A  paragraph  outline 
(see  paragraph  262,  above)  that  will  give  him  a  sentence  for 
each  thought  unit  is  certainly  better  in  this  connection  than 
the  topic  outline. 

400.  When  he  has  finished  this  plan,  he  should  talk  the 
speech  through.  Keeping  the  outline  in  front  of  him,  he 
should  go  through  the  whole  thing,  actually  talking  out  loud 
if  he  can.  If  he  must  keep  silence  on  account  of  his  neigh- 
bors, he  must  at  least  frame  the  words  mentally,  and  leave 
no  gaps  to  be  filled  in  hurriedly  when  he  is  before  his  audi- 
ence. Let  him  repeat  this  ''talking"  process  once  or  twice 
till  he  has  become  accustomed  to  the  sound  of  his  sentences. 

401.  Next  let  him  "boil  down"  the  outline,  eliminating 
the  minor  points,  and  talk  the  speech  through  once  more 
from  this  condensed  plan,  referring  to  his  notes  as  little  as 
possible.  Then  will  come  the  final  cut  in  the  outline,  reduc- 
ing it  to  five  or  six  main  heads,  which  can  be  put  on  a  single 
card.  Let  him  try  it  once  more,  still  talking  as  if  to  an 
audience,  and  see  whether  these  few  suggestions  are  not  all 
that  he  needs  in  the  way  of  "reminders."  Indeed,  if  his 
experience  is  that  of  most  people,  he  will  not  once  refer  to  the 
card  in  his  hand. 

402.  But  when  the  time  for  the  speech  arrives,  there  is 
no  need  for  taking  chances  with  one's  nervous  system.  The 
complete  outline  should  be  on  the  desk,  accessible,  but  not 
obtrusive.  The  chances  are  that  the  speaker  will  forget  all 
about  it  when  he  begins  to  talk,  but  the  fact  that  it  is  there 
will  give  him  confidence. 

403.  By  such  simple  methods  a  student  can  do  much  to 
Hghten  the  task  of  his  memory.  Psychologists  generally 
say  that  it  is  impossible  for  a  man  to  increase  his  natural 
mental  retentiveness.     But  it  is  certain  that  developing  an 


240  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

interest  in  a  subject,  paying  attention  to  the  systematic 
arrangement  of  what  one  has  to  say,  and  composing  the 
speech  in  some  such  way  as  has  been  here  suggested,  will  aid 
a  speaker's  memory  and  give  him  the  confidence  which  is 
necessary  to  successful  public  speaking. 

IV.    "  Stage  Fright." 

404.  Fear  of  a  sudden  break-down  of  one's  memory  is 
probably  the  largest  element  in  that  strange  nervousness 
which  we  call  "stage  fright."  Many  a  man  who  has  spent 
patient  hours  in  the  preparation  of  his  address  has  found 
himself  unnerved  when  he  stepped  before  his  audience;  his 
knees  tremble,  his  mouth  is  parched,  he  longs  only  for  an 
avenue  of  escape  from  the  ordeal  ahead. 

405.  To  overcome  this  sort  of  nervousness  is  difficult. 
The  mere  assertion  that  you  will  not  be  frightened  may  do 
some  good;  perhaps  you  can  hypnotize  yourself  into  thinking 
that  the  entire  experience  will  be  merely  a  source  of  pleasure. 
But  this  plan  will  not  work  at  all  with  some  people.  The 
best  advice  veteran  speakers  can  give  on  this  matter  amounts 
to  little  more  than  this:  be  so  eager  to  make  the  speech,  so 
sure  of  its  truth  and  importance,  that  you  will  welcome 
the  opportunity  and  not  dread  it.  Once  again  we  come  back 
to  what  we  have  suggested  before:  if  you  have  something 
to  say,  if  you  really  feel  that  you  must  tell  this  audience 
something,  you  will  at  one  stroke  wipe  away  many  of  the 
difficulties  that  might  otherwise  impede  you.  The  man  who 
is  in  a  hurry  for  the  other  fellow  to  stop  so  that  he  himself 
may  get  to  the  platform  is  virtually  immune  against  the 
disease. 

406.  If,  then,  this  common  sort  of  stage  fright  is  some- 
thing to  be  mastered  by  one  means  or  another,  there  is  a 
second  sort  of  nervousness  attendant  upon  making  a  speech, 
which  is  a  good  thing.     We  mean  this:  unless  a  man  is  a 


TALKING  IN  PUBLIC  241 

little  nervous  before  he  begins  to  talk,  the  chances  are  that 
he  is  not  taking  the  opportunity  seriously  enough.  It  is  a 
serious  thing  to  ask  ten — fifty — busy  people  to  stop  work 
and  listen  to  you.  Unless  you  appreciate  this  fact,  and  are 
properly  humbled  by  it,  are  a  little  concerned  over  the  out- 
come, you  will  do  your  work  less  well  than  you  might.  But 
don't  let  this  preliminary  nervousness  get  the  better  of  you. 
Appreciate  the  seriousness  of  your  task  and  the  magnitude 
of  your  opportunity;  approach  the  platform  modestly,  but 
confident  that  you  are  master  of  the  situation  and  that  what 
you  have  to  say  will  be  of  interest  to  your  audience.  Only 
through  combining  a  proper  humility  with  an  eager  self- 
rehance  can  you  do  justice  to  the  occasion. 

V.    Voice. 

407.  Since  this  book  is  not  written  for  professional  public 
speakers,  little  need  be  said  concerning  the  use  of  the  voice. 
The  interested  student  will  find  it  worth  his  while  to  consult 
Chamberlain  and  Clark's  Principles  of  Vocal  Expression 
(Scott,  Foresman  and  Company),  or  Nathan  Sheppard's 
Before  an  Audience  (Funk  and  Wagnalls).  Here  are  only 
one  or  two  practical  suggestions. 

408.  If  the  student  feels  that  his  voice  is  too  weak  for 
effective  speaking,  he  should  practise  reading  aloud  whenever 
he  has  the  chance.  He  should  read  slowly,  enunciate  care- 
fully, and  pitch  the  voice  a  tone  or  two  lower  than  is  habitual. 
Let  him  use  the  best  reading  and  speaking  voice  he  can 
command,  and  use  it  all  the  time.  Breathing  exercises 
will  be  of  some  value;  reading  poetry  which  demands  a 
variety  of  expression  is  also  useful. 

409.  But  the  best  advice  is  simply  not  to  worry  about 
your  voice.  Don't  force  it  when  you  speak;  never  shout. 
Talk  to  some  person  towards  the  back  of  the  room,  as  if  no 
one  else  were  present.     If  you  really  have  something  to  say, 


242  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

and  arrange  your  ideas  well,  the  listeners  will  probably  forget 
all  about  your  voice. 

VI.    Enunciation. 

410.  Except  in  the  case  of  foreigners,  poor  enunciation  is 
generally  due  to  simple  negligence.  It  can  be  corrected  by 
paying  attention  to  the  matter  as  you  read,  by  using  your 
will  power,  and  by  practise.  The  practise,  moreover,  need 
not  all  be  vocal.  If  you  are  accus'tomed  to  pronounce  the 
word  ''government''  as  if  it  were  spelled  "govumunt,"  you 
can  do  as  much  to  rid  yourself  of  the  habit  by  silently  think- 
ing the  word  through,  correctly,  three  or  four  times,  as  by 
uttering  the  syllables  aloud.  The  important  thing  is  to 
resolve  never  to  say  "govumunt,"  either  to  yourself  or  to  an 
audience.  Insist  on  precision;  when  you  speak  to  yourself 
or  to  others,  speak  carefully,  thoughtfully.  If  you  are  the 
sort  of  person  who  talks  through  almost  closed  teeth,  insist 
that  you  open  your  mouth  wider  than  usual.  See  whether 
you  can  put  a  pencil  between  your  teeth  as  you  pronounce 
the  vowels.  If  you  can,  you  will  be  on  the  road  to  improve- 
ment. Use  your  will;  form  as  good  habits  as  you  can;  never 
allow  yourself  to  slip  back  into  the  slovenliness  from  which 
you  have  escaped. 

VII.    Persuasiveness. 

411.  Finally,  we  touch  upon  a  large  matter:  Lack  of 
Persuasiveness.  On  this  subject  much  that  is  valuable  has 
already  been  written,  as,  for  instance,  in  President  Walter 
Dill  Scott's  Psychology  of  Public  Speaking  (Pearson  Brothers), 
and  Influencing  Men  in  Business  (The  Ronald  Press  Com- 
pany). But  there  are  a  few  simple  suggestions  that  may  be 
of  assistance  in  many  ways. 

412.  First  of  all,  one  should  remember  that  most  talking 
done  by  business  men  is  intended  to  produce  some  sort  of 
action  on  the  part  of  the  listeners.    If  it  fails  to  result  in 


TALKING  IN  PUBLIC  243 

action,  it  is — unless  it  be  purely  entertainment — usually 
worthless.  Now  many  men  who  talk  well  get  few  results; 
their  arguments  are  overthrown  by  a  single  well-told  anecdote 
or  casual  suggestion.  It  is  a  puzzling  phenomenon;  men 
are  influenced  to  act  by  other  things  than  simple  logic. 

413.  Suppose  that  you  belong  to  this  unfortunate  class 
of  men  who  somehow  or  other  get  these  unsatisfactory  re- 
sults. What  can  you  do  to  help  yourself?  Well,  for  one 
thing,  remember  that  the  attention  of  an  individual,  or  of  an 
audience,  is  a  fluctuating  quantity.  Psychologists  have 
demonstrated  the  impossibility  of  keeping  the  mind  firmly 
on  any  one  subject  for  many  minutes — ^yes,  for  more  than  a 
comparatively  few  seconds.  Hence  arises  the  value  of  the 
story  that  gives  the  Hsteners  a  chance  to  stop  thinking  for  a 
moment,  of  the  breaks  in  the  argument  wliich  allow  them  to 
relax  their  mental  muscles. 

414.  You  should  remember  too — and  on  the  significance 
of  this  fact  you  can  ponder  long — that  there  are  two  chief 
ways  of  influencing  men:  by  argument  and  by  suggestion. 
Here  again,  of  course,  there  is  no  golden  rule  of  procedure; 
men  react  differently  to  different  stimuli;  one  is  "suggest- 
ible,'' his  neighbor  is  less  so.  But  there  are  few  persons 
actually  proof  against  subtle  suggestion,  and  there  are  many 
on  whom  argument  makes  relatively  Httle  impression. 
Hence  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  combine  these  two  things 
when  you  are  speaking:  to  let  the  argument  give  the  reason 
why,  and  to  clinch  it  with  the  suggestion  which  shall  furnish 
the  stimulus  to  action.  If  you  have  the  instinct  which  leads 
some  men  unconsciously  to  employ  just  this  method  in  their 
business  talking,  or  if  you  are  willing  to  observe  successful 
speakers,  to  see  how  they  make  the  adjustment  between  the 
two  factors,  and  are  willing  to  think  things  out  in  advance 
as  we  have  urged  you  to  do,  the  chances  are  that  you  will 
find  your  own  powers  steadily  increasing. 


244  THE  ENGLISH  OF  BUSINESS 

415.  To  sum  it  all  up,  then:  the  person  who  talks  in 
public  will  find  that  his  chief  insurance  against  failure  lies  in 
knowledge  of  his  subject  and  in  careful  planning  before  the 
event.  If  he  can  then  fortify  himself  for  the  actual  speech 
by  realizing  both  the  seriousness  of  his  task  and  the  oppor- 
tunity it  offers,  and  is  skillful  in  relieving  his  argument  by 
appropriate  anecdote  and  in  clinching  it  with  timely  sugges- 
tion, he  may  look  forward  confidently  to  a  greater  and  more 
satisfying  success. 

EXERCISE  2. 

Prepare  and  give  before  the  class  a  talk  of  ten  minutes  on  one  of 
the  following  subjects: 

1.  A  vacation  experience. 

2.  An  interesting  book  which  you  have  recently  read  and  which 
you  wish  to  recommend  to  your  classmates. 

3.  Suggestions  for  the  improvement  of  the  school  athletics. 

4.  Why  Chemistry  (or  any  other  science)  should  be  studied  by 
girls. 

5.  Proposals  for  enlarging  the  school  paper. 

6.  What  I  owe  to  the  Boy  Scouts  (or  some  similar  organization). 

7.  The  lessons  of  the  recent  football  season. 

8.  How  to  improve  the  social  life  of  the  school. 

9.  The  organization  of  a  business  office  with  which  you  are 
familiar. 

10.  Why  a  young  man  (or  woman)  interested  in  business  should 
have  a  college  education. 

11.  Your  favorite  make  of  automobiles. 

12.  The  merits  of  (some  article  of  merchandise  which 

you  imagine  yourself  to  be  selling). 

13.  The  value  of  good  English  to  a  business  man. 

14.  How  to  pitch  a  tent. 

15.  How  to  make^  a  cooking-fire  out  of  doors. 

16.  How  to  make  hay. 

17.  How  to  make  a  tennis  court. 

18.  The  way  to  train  for  some  field  or  track  event. 

19.  The  game  of  chess  (or  checkers). 

20.  How  to  care  for  an  automobile. 

21.  A  model  dairy  (or  stock  farm). 


TALKING  IN  PUBLIC  245 

22.  Marketing  a  crop  (corn,  wheat,  cotton,  etc.). 

23.  Fraternities  in  the  high  school  (or  college). 

24.  How  to  plant  potatoes. 

25.  How  to  preserve  fruit. 

26.  The  value  of  a  course  in  home  nursing. 

27.  First-aid  for  high-school  students. 

28.  The  importance  of  ventilation  in  the  schoolroom. 

29.  How  to  entertain  children. 


APPENDIX. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

Though  this  book  is  addressed  primarily  to  students  who 
are  looking  forward  to  business  as  a  career,  and  is  perhaps 
best  adapted  to  use  in  courses  in  business  writing,  it  can 
easily  be  made  the  foundation  of  any  ordinary  course  in 
English  Composition.  In  courses  of  either  type  the  services 
it  may  render  are  of  two  sorts:  it  may  be  used  as  a  text-book 
for  its  body  of  organized  theory  and  its  exercises,  and  it  may 
be  used  as  a  manual  for  the  correction  of  themes.  Little 
need  be  said  here  of  the  first  of  these  possible  services.  As 
to  the  second  use,  the  numbering  of  the  paragraphs  and  the 
provision  of  a  detailed  table  of  contents  and  index  will  make 
it  easy  for  the  teacher  to  guide  the  student  in  the  revision  of 
his  themes  merely  by  inserting  a  marginal  reference  to  the 
pertinent  paragraph  of  the  text.  One  caution,  however,  is  in 
point  here:  the  student  must  be  required  to  make  the  correc- 
tion himself.  It  will  do  little  good  for  the  instructor  to 
place  a  ''103"  in  the  margin  and  thus  to  refer  to  the  paragraph 
deahng  with  the  "dangling  participle,"  unless  after  his 
attention  has  been  called  to  the  error  the  student  revises  the 
sentence  himself. 

In  this  connection  some  sort  of  composition  notebook  will 
prove  of  immense  assistance — a  book  in  which  students  can 
keep  records  of  their  owti  errors,  with  the  necessary  correc- 
tions, compile  lists  of  new  words,  preserve  their  own  work, 
and  file  mimeographed  copies  of  unusually  good  compositions 
and  additional  exercises. 

Finally,  it  cannot  be  urged  too  strongly  that  throughout 
the  course  the  student  must  do  a  considerable  amount  of 

247 


248  APPENDIX 

writing  if  he  is  to  derive  full  benefit  from  his  work.  "  Study- 
ing" a  text-book  on  composition,  committing  to  memory- 
good  advice  about  sentence  structure  or  the  writing  of 
letters,  will  be  of  little  avail  unless  this  studying  is  accom- 
panied by  constant  practise  in  writing. 

CHAPTER  I.    THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  ENGLISH  IN 
BUSINESS. 

The  first  chapter  may  very  well  be  made  the  basis  of  a  general 
classroom  discussion.  Such  questions  as  "Why  are  you  interested 
in  business  English?"  "What  sort  of  writing  does  a  man  have  to 
do  in  the  business  you  hope  to  enter?"  "What  business  firms 
whose  advertisements  you  read  seem  to  pay  most  attention  to 
their  EngHsh?"     "Kow  does  the  abihty  to  speak  well  help  Mr. 

(some  business  man  you  know)?  "    ''What  bothers  you  most 

when  you  write  (or  speak)?" — questions  like  these  will  be  inter- 
esting to  almost  everyone  and  will  give  the  teacher  a  chance  both 
to  enforce  the  value  of  good  English  and  to  illustrate  the  necessity 
of  a  thorough  mastery  of  fundamentals. 

In  revising  the  written  exercises  asked  for  in  Chapter  I,  it  may 
be  well  not  to  pay  too  much  attention  to  the  niceties  of  sentence 
structure  or  paragraphing.  Flagrant  mistakes  in  grammar  and 
usage  should  of  course  be  pointed  out,  but  the  chief  purpose  of  the 
chapter  is  not  to  teach  the  pupils  how  to  write,  but  to  open  their 
eyes  to  the  fact  that  good  writing  has  a  place  in  good  business. 

CHAPTER  II.  MATTERS  OF  FORM. 

This  chapter  may  be  entirely  omitted  by  advanced  classes,  or 
used  as  a  basis  for  rapid  review  and  subsequent  correction  of  stu- 
dents' errors.  The  most  important  section,  and  the  only  one  that 
need  occupy  much  time,  is  that  on  Punctuation.  Here  the  aim  of 
the  authors  has  been  two-fold :  to  state  succinctly  the  principles  of 
present-day  punctuation,  illustrating  everything;  and  to  furnish 
an  abundance  of  exercises  for  classroom  drill  and  discussion. 

CHAPTER  III.    GRAMMATICAL  DIFFICULTIES. 

Inevitably  some  students  will  need  more  drill  in  the  fundamentals 
of  grammar  than  others.    If  a  class  shows  that  it  does  not  need 


APPENDIX  249 

special  review,  the  pages  of  this  chapter  may  well  be  turned  rap- 
idly, after  judicious  selections  from  the  different  exercises  have 
shown  the  students'  grasp  of  the  subject. 

For  such  advanced  students,  as  well  as  for  those  whose  early 
training  has  been  deficient,  the  exercises  will  be  of  value  only  if 
the  students  are  required  to  give  precise  reasons  for  the  changes 
they  make  or  the  forms  they  select  to  fill  in  blanks.  Many  a 
person  who  instinctively  knows  how,  is  puzzled  to  tell  why;  but 
though  he  may  instinctively  be  right,  he  will  usually  be  less  inde- 
pendent, and  in  the  long  run  will  make  more  errors,  than  the  stu- 
dent who  can  give  his  reasons. 

The  average  class  will  probably  omit  almost  entirely  the  "Glos- 
sary of  Grammatical  Terms."  It  is  included,  however,  for  the  sake 
of  the  occasional  student  who  is  a  laggard  not  because  of  unwill- 
ingness to  work,  but  because  he  is  actually  ignorant  of  the  mean- 
ing of  the  few  technical  terms  which  seem  absolutely  necessary  in 
any  discussion  of  grammar. 

CHAPTER  IV.    A  BUSINESS  MAN'S  VOCABULARY. 

It  will  be  apparent  that  Chapter  IV  does  not  bring  the  student 
far  on  the  road  toward  the  mastery  of  "Business"  EngUsh.  The 
advice  here  given,  and  the  problems  presented,  will  be  as  useful 
to  the  young  person  who  is  sure  not  to  go  into  business,  as  to  the 
one  who  has  a  position  awaiting  him.  But  no  time  will  be  wasted 
by  insisting  that  the  boy  or  girl  who  is  in  a  hurry  to  write  busi- 
ness letters  spend  some  days  or  weeks  in  working  carefully  through 
this  preliminary  material. 

Of  course,  if  the  chapter  is  to  accomplish  its  purpose,  the  study 
of  the  suggestions  it  presents  must  be  accompanied  by  abundant 
and  constant  practise  in  writing.  It  is  easy  to  convince  a  young 
man  that  his  supply  of  words  is  inadequate;  it  is  harder  to  inter- 
est him  in  enlarging  it.  Much  can  be  done  by  insisting  that  each 
member  of  the  class  keep  in  his  composition  notebook  a  list  of  new 
words,  and  that  he  add  to  this  list  each  week  during  the  course, 
no  matter  what  the  immediate  subject  before  the  class  may  be. 
These  new  words  should,  of  course,  be  discussed  in  the  classroom, 
so  that  all  students  may  have  the  benefit  of  each  one's  work..  And 
the  words  should  be  living  words — not  those  which  would  rarely 
if  ever  occur  in  conversation  or  general  writing.  Furthermore,  the 
student  should  be  led  to  use  these  new  acquisitions  in  his  own  work. 


250  APPENDIX 

The  habit  of  looking  over  his  hst  of  words  before  beginning  to 
write  each  new  theme,  and  if  possible,  as  a  supplement  to  this, 
the  habit  of  consulting  the  Hst  in  Roget's  Thesaurus  (accessible  in 
Everyman's  Library),  will  soon  make  themselves  felt  in  a  grati- 
fying increase  in  his  power  of  expression. 

In  connection,  too,  with  the  work  on  this  chapter,  the  instructor 
will  probably  require  each  student  to  procure  a  dictionary.  Class- 
room exercises  in  using  a  dictionary  will  furnish  pleasant  variations 
from  ordinary  work,  and  at  the  same  time  will  illustrate  the  value 
of  the  dictionary  to  anyone  who  speaks  or  writes. 

CHAPTER  V.  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES. 

No  apology  is  necessary  for  advising  the  teacher  to  spend  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  time  on  the  fundamentals  of  sentence  structure. 
Of  all  the  elements  of  composition,  the  sentence  is,  for  the  beginner 
at  least,  the  most  important.  It  is  the  thought-unit  of  virtually 
all  writing. 

The  fact  that  most  of  the  exercises  seem  contrived  primarily  to 
illustrate  common  errors,  and  not  to  stimulate  directly  the  student's 
ability  to  write,  is  not  such  a  serious  objection  to  the  method  of 
this  chapter  as  it  might  appear.  Experience  shows  that  for  one 
reason  or  another  many  pupils  reach  high  school  and  college 
without  any  instinctive  feeling  for  the  fundamentals  of  sentence 
structure.  Such  persons  need  the  simplest  sort  of  instruction, 
instruction  based  on  sound  theory,  and  illustrated  constantly  by 
practica'  examples.  This  combination  of  theory  and  practise,  the 
present  chapter  suppHes. 

Needless  to  say,  much  effective  study  of  sentences  can  be  car- 
ried on  in  connection  with  larger  problems.  Short  themes,  simple 
business  letters,  reports  on  different  phases  of  school  activity: 
these  and  many  other  devices  may  be  used  to  stimulate  interest, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  primary  matters  of  sentence  construc- 
tion are  receiving  the  weight  of  attention. 

No  teacher  will  be  satisfied,  however,  with  a  mere  correction  of 
his  students'  errors.  For  the  writing  of  sentences  that  are  not 
only  negatively  correct  but  positively  effective,  much  more  is  nec- 
essary— ^the  possession  of  subject-matter  which  stimulates  the 
writer's  interest  and  arouses  all  of  his  powers  of  mind,  and,  above 
all,  perhaps,  a  habit  of  constantly  reading  good  prose.  It  cannot 
be  too  strongly  urged  that  good  writing— even  good  "business" 


APPENDIX  251 

writing — can  come  only  from  a  mind  that  has  absorbed  a  large 
amount  of  good  reading,  and  has  thought  long  and  closely  upon  it. 
"Outside  reading"  in,  say,  the  essays  of  Stevenson  and  Macaulay, 
the  short  stories  of  Kipling,  and  the  more  technical  exposition  of  such 
men  as  Bryce  or  Huxley,  and  occasional  analysis  in  class  of  selected 
pages  from  these  and  other  writers,  should,  therefore,  be  a  regular 
part  of  the  course. 

CHAPTER  VI     PARAGRAPHS. 

The  method  of  this  chapter  is  consistent  with  that  of  the  whole 
book:  first,  to  place  before  the  students  the  ideals  of  all  good 
writing;  and  second,  to  develop  the  special  technique  of  business. 
Accordingly,  there  is  little  in  the  chapter  which  would  be  out  of 
place  in  a  general  course  in  composition,  and  nothing  which  is  not 
of  value  to  the  prospective  business  man  or  woman. 

Some  persons  may  doubt  whether  the  "topic  sentence"  method 
of  paragraph  development  will  ever  prove  useful  to  the  writer 
of  business  letters.  As  we  point  out  in  the  text,  the  conventions 
of  the  business  letter  are  different  from  those  of  the  essay,  and  the 
business  man  will  surely  take  some  liberties  with  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  paragraphing.  But  the  student  who  in  his  school  work 
forms  the  habit  of  writing  paragraphs  around  a  definite  topic  sen- 
tence will  profit  by  it  when  he  later  takes  up  the  problems  of  the 
business  office.  He  will  have  developed  a  feeling  for  the  unity  and 
coherence  of  a  paragraph,  and  will  unconsciously  weave  into  his 
letters  the  qualities  which  once  he  labored  to  impart  to  his  school 
exercises. 

To  this  end,  the  students  should  be  required  to  under  fine  the 
'topic  sentences  in  all  themes  written  after  the  subject  of  paragraphs 
is  introduced.  This  requirement,  in  addition  to  the  exercises  pro- 
vided in  the  text,  will  do  much  to  develop  their  sense  of  the  para- 
graph as  a  logical  and  effective  unit. 

CHAPTER  VII.    THE  WRITING  OF  ARTICLES  AND 
REPORTS. 

The  value  of  this  chapter  will  depend  to  a  considerable  extent 
upon  the  way  the  class  is  led  to  put  into  practise  the  suggestions 
here  given.  It  will  do  little  good  to  commit  to  memory  advice 
about  taking  notes,  for  instance;  but  the  student  who  has  actually 


252  APPENDIX 

used  the  method  outlined  in  the  chapter  for  the  preparation  of  his 
report,  will  be  benefited  by  his  experience. 

Many  teachers  have  found  that  for  the  purpose  of  adequately 
guiding  a  class  in  such  work,  the  process  may  be  carried  on  much 
as  follows: 

1.  Announce  a  list  of  topics  from  which  each  student  can  choose 
one  in  which  he  is  interested.    (See  the  suggestions  on  page  188.) 

2.  Ask  the  students  to  present  preliminary  lists  of  books  or  ar- 
ticles which  they  think  will  aid  them  in  their  work.  Little  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  bibliographical  form  at  this  stage;  the  im- 
portant thing  is  to  see  to  it  that  the  class  learns  how  to  use  a  library. 

3.  Explain  the  ' 'loose-leaf "  or  ''card"  method  of  taking  notes, 
and  require  each  student  to  present  for  criticism  half  a  dozen 
actual  notes  which  he  has  gathered  for  his  report.  Make  sure  that 
the  students  know  what  they  are  doing,  and  are  not  working 
blindly. 

4.  When  the  note-taking  is  virtually  complete,  require  a  prelimi- 
nary outline. 

5.  This  first  outline  should  be  revised  with  care. 

6.  When  a  revised  outline  has  been  approved,  the  student  is 
ready  to  begin  writing  the  report. 

7.  Last  of  all,  the  teacher  will  insist  that  when  the  finished 
article  is  handed  in,  it  be  accompanied  by  an  adequate  bibhography 
and  furnished  with  footnotes. 

Of  course,  such  an  exercise  may  be  made  either  elaborate  or 
simple.  For  most  classes  the  subjects  for  investigation  should  in- 
volve the  use  of  only  five  or  six  reference  works  which  can  easily 
be  secured  at  any  public  library.  The  important  thing  is  for  the 
class  to  learn  the  method  of  all  investigation,  so  that  when  in  the 
future  more  elaborate  problems  present  themselves  the  students 
can  bring  to  their  solution  a  certain  amount  of  experience  and 
mental  equipment. 

The  list  of  subjects  suggested  for  reports  may  be  brought  up 
to  date  and  enlarged  by  any  instructor  who  will  turn  for  sugges- 
tions to  the  topical  entries  in  the  Reader's  Guide. 

For  training  in  the  organization  of  material  few  things  will  be 
more  profitable  than  the  analysis  in  class  of  good  prose,  under  the 
direction  of  the  instructor.  It  is  one  thing  to  tell  a  class  that 
structure,  proportion,  balance,  are  necessary  to  well-written  articles; 
it  is  quite  another,  and  far  more  worth  while,  for  the  class  to  dis- 
cover these  qualities  in  the  works  they  read. 


APPENDIX  253 

CHAPTER  VIII.    A  BUSINESSMAN'S 
CORRESPONDENCE. 

Some  classes  in  Business  English  may  not  know  enough  about 
the  actual  transaction  of  business  to  use  all  parts  of  this  chapter 
with  intelligence.  For  such  students  there  is  enough  non-technical 
material  which  they  can  comprehend,  and  the  very  attempt  to 
master  the  rest  will  do  something  to  dispel  the  prevailing  ignorance. 

In  any  case,  the  first  problem  will  be  to  get  the  students  into  the 
state  of  mind  of  business  men.  To  this  end  the  class  may  well  be 
divided  into  groups  of  four  or  six  persons,  in  each  of  which  one- 
half  shall  represent  the  buyer,  and  one-half  the  seller.  These  small 
groups  should  work  out  their  problems  jointly,  consulting  about 
the  letters  they  write.  The  device  of  establishing  "firms"  will 
sometimes  stimulate  interest  which  might  otherwise  flag.  Prob- 
lems intimately  connected  with  the  experience  of  the  students  them- 
selves can  thus  be  presented  and  solved. 

The  material  of  the  chapter  may  be  so  expanded  by  the  instructor 
as  to  cover  as  much  time  as  he  thinks  fit;  if  used  in  its  present 
form,  without  additional  exercises,  it  will  insure  at  least  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  most  important  principles,  and  the  best  prac- 
tise, of  busmess  letter  writing. 

To  be  of  the  most  value,  the  chapter  should  be  taken  up  in  con- 
nection with  actual  practise  on  the  typewriter.  If  this  is  impos- 
sible, the  teacher  will  see  to  it  that  the  letters  written  in  long-hand 
conform  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  ideals  of  the  best  typed  cor- 
respondence. Naturally,  the  school  in  which  it  is  possible  to  in- 
clude courses  in  the  elements  of  Business  Law,  Banking,  Sales- 
manship, Psychology,  Business  Arithmetic,  Bookkeeping,  etc., 
will  be  in  a  position  to  gain  most  from  this  treatment  of  Business 
Correspondence. 

Finally,  the  teacher  will  realize  that  this  chapter  makes  no  at- 
tempt to  treat  in  detail  the  many  special  problems  of  business 
correspondence.  The  examples  of  well-written  letters  (paragraph 
359)  are  only  what  they  pretend  to  be,  illustrations  of  successful 
practise.  The  underlying  principles  of  all  business  correspondence 
are  discussed  in  some  detail;  but  the  class  which  has  time  to  go 
into  an  elaborate  study  of,  say,  sales-letters,  will  need  the  guidance 
of  a  more  advanced  text-book. 


254  APPENDIX 

CHAPTER  IX.    TALKING  IN  PUBLIC. 

Some  teachers  will  probably  wish  to  use  this  chapter  near  the 
beginning  of  a  course,  and  to  make  the  suggestions  it  contains  the 
basis  of  short  talks  by  members  of  the  class,  distributed  over  the 
entire  semester.  Such  use  of  the  chapter  will  in  no  way  interfere 
with  the  orderly  development  of  the  remaining  material  in  the  book. 

Wherever  the  matter  is  taken  up,  the  class  should  be  encour- 
aged frankly  to  criticize  the  work  of  their  fellows,  particularly  as 
regards  the  structure  of  the  different  "oral  themes."  If  time  per- 
mits, the  students  should  hand  in  outlines  of  their  talks  two  or 
three  recitations  in  advance,  to  the  end  that  they  may  be  criti- 
cized and  revised. 


INDEX 

[  The  numbers  refer  to  paragraphs.     The  individual  items  of  the  Glossary 
of  Grammatical  Terms,  pp.  73-80,  are  not  entered.] 


Abbreviations,  to  be  used  sparingly, 
22;  punctuation  of,  25,  73;  lists 
of,  26;  abbreviations  for  names  of 
states  not  to  be  used  on  envel- 
opes, 295 

"A-b-c"  series,  punctuation  of,  56 

Accord  {of  his  own),  123 

Accordingly,  not  a  coordinate  con- 
junction, 177 

According  to  {in  accordance  with), 
123 

Ad,  152 

Adams,  John,  382 

Adaptation  of  words  to  subject- 
matter,  160-163;  to  reader,  164- 
169 

Address,  introductory,  in  letters, 
307;  punctuation  of,  313 

Addresses,  public,  the  best  way  to 
prepare,  399-403 

Adjustment  letters,  359 

Affect,  effect,  152 

Agree  {with,  to,  among),  123 

Agreement  of  pronoun  with  ante- 
cedent, 86,  188;  of  verb  with 
subject,  96 

Already,  152 

Alright,  152 

Ambiguity,  use  of  comma  to  pre- 
vent, 63 

Analysis  of  material,  use  of  cards 
in,  243,  379 

And  at  beginning  of  sentence,  125 

Anecdotes,  value  of,  413 

Angry  {at,  with),  123 


AnnuM  Magazine  Subject  Index, 
245 

Apostrophe,  uses  of,  66-68,  69 

Apphcation,  letters  of,  359 

Apposition,  punctuation  of  words 
in,  58-60 

Articles  and  Reports,  the  prepara- 
tion of,  236-285;  helps  in  gather- 
ing material,  245;  note-taking, 
248-254;  analysis  of  material, 
255-256;  outlines,  257-264;  im- 
portance of  unity,  coherence, 
and  proportion,  274-275;  bibli- 
ographies and  footnotes,  276-285 

As,  case  of  pronouns  after,  94;  dis- 
tinguished from  like,  121,  152 

Attention,  fluctuation  of,  413 

Auto,  152 

Averse  to,  123 

Balance,  152 

Beecher,  Henry  W.,  387 

Bibliographies,  directions  for  pre- 
paring, 276-278 

Blame  on,  152 

Body  of  business  letter,  316 

Book  Review  Digest,  245 

Brackets,  square,  when  used  in 
quotations,  82 

Brevity  as  an  aid  to  emphasis, 
201 

Business  Digest  and  Investment 
Weekly,  245 

Business  English  and  Uterary  Eng- 
lish, 3-4 


255 


256 


INDEX 


Business  letters,  286-359;  im- 
portance of,  286-287;  general 
principles,  289;  envelopes,  291- 
296;  paper,  297;  letter-heads, 
298-301;  heading,  303;  saluta- 
tion, 314;  body,  316;  compli- 
mentary close,  317;  signature, 
318;    specimen  letters,  322,  359 

But  at  beginning  of  sentence,  125; 
punctuation  before  in  compound 
sentences,  55 

But  what,  152 

Can,  misused  for  may,  152 

Cannot  help,  123 

Capitalization  of  first  word  in  a  line 
of  poetry,  32;  of  direct  quota- 
tions, 32;  of  titles  of  books  and 
articles,  33;  miscellaneous  rules 
for,  34;    for  emphasis,  35 

Cardinal  numbers,  hyphen  with,  72 

Case  of  pronouns,  how  deter- 
mined, 87-94 

Catchwords  on  notes,  251 

Certain  whom  (not  as  to  whom), 
123 

Claim,  152 

Clauses,  punctuation  of  dependent, 
58-60 

Clearness  in  letters,  343-352 

Clear  thinking,  need  for  in  public 
speaking,  373-389 

Climax  as  an  aid  to  sentence  em- 
phasis, 198;  to  paragraph  empha- 
sis, 229 

Close,  complimentary,  317 

Coherence,  in  the  sentence,  184- 
196;  violated  by  misplaced 
modifiers,  184-185;  by  ambigu- 
ous pronouns,  186-188;  aided  by 
parallel  structure,  194,  225;  in 
the  paragraph,  221-227;  aided  by 
arrangement  of  sentences,  221; 
by  use  of  connective  and  transi- 
tional phrases,  222-223  ;by  repeti- 


tion, 226;  in  articles  and  re- 
ports, 274 

Collection  letters,  359 

Colon,  use  of,  47,  53 

Comma,  use  of,  49,  53,  54,  56,  57, 
59,  60,  61,  63 

Common  nouns,  possessive  case 
forms  of,  66 

Compare  (to,  with),  123 

Completeness  as  a  quality  of  good 
letters,  351 

Complete-sentence  outline,  264 

Compound  sentences,  punctua- 
tion of,  54,  176-177 

Compound  subject,  number  of  verb 
with,  101 

Compound  words,  when  hyphen- 
ated, 72 

Conclusions,  271 

Concrete  and  specific  words,  value 
of,  161-162 

Condensation,  value  of,  167,  350 

Conjunctions,  118-121;  confusion 
of  coordinating  and  subordinat- 
ing, 119 

Connective  devices  between  para- 
graphs, 268-269 

Connectives,  position  of,  in  clause, 
224 

Conrad,  Joseph,  quoted,  136 

Consist  (in,  of),  123 

Contents,  tables  of,  273 

Conventional  phrases  in  business 
letters,  337-338,  341 

Coordinate  series,  punctuation  of, 
56 

Correctness  as  a  quality  of  good 
letters,  352 

Correspond  (to,  with),  123 

''Dangling  participle,"  103,  190 
Dash,  single,  use  of,  50,  53 
Dashes,  double,  use  of,  51,  61 
Dates  on  letters,  to  be  written 
out,  305 


INDEX 


257 


Deal  {in,  with),  123 

Declarative  sentence,  terminal 
punctuation  of,  43 

Dependent  elements  not  in  coordi- 
nate series,  punctuation  of,  57-60 

Depew,  Chauncey  M.,  371 

"Dictated  but  not  read,"  321 

Diction,  faulty,  152 

Dictionaries,  19,  20,  131 

Differ  {from,  with),  123 

Different,  152 

Don't  and  doesn't,  confusion  of, 
96 

Dotted  line  for  dates  and  signa- 
tures, not  to  be  used,  300,  321 

Due  to,  ungrammatical  use  of,  107, 
191-192 

Each,  number  of  verb  after,  102 

"Earliest  convenience,"  338 

Either,  neither,  number  of  verb 
after,  102 

Emphasis,  capitalization  or  italics 
for,  to  be  sparingly  used,  35,  76; 
in  the  sentence,  197-203;  aided 
by  position,  198;  by  vividness 
of  phrasing,  199;  by  brevity, 
201;  by  repetition,  202;  in  the 
paragraph,  228-229;  in  articles 
and  reports,  274 

Enclosures  in  business  letters,  how 
indicated,  320 

Endings  of  business  letters,  317- 
322 

English,  reasons  for  studying,  1-11 

Enthuse,  152 

Enunciation,  suggestions  for  the 
improvement  of,  410 

Envelopes  for  business  letters, 
stock  for,  291-292;  sizes,  291- 
292;  methods  of  addressing,  293; 
abbreviations  for  names  of  states 
not  to  be  used  on,  295;  "Return 
card,  "296 

Equally  as,  123 


Esquire,  use  of,  309 

Everybody,  number  of  verb  after, 
102 

Exclamatory  sentence,  terminal 
punctuation  after,  45 

Exercises,  after  paragraphs  14,  21, 
30,  53,  55,  56,  60,  62,  63,  68,  76, 
83,  86,  94,  102,  107,  112,  116, 
117,  121,  125,  131,  135,  137,  139, 
140,  142,  152,  158,  163,  165,  168, 
174,  175,  177,  180,  183,  185,  188, 
193,  195,  203,  206,  212,  214,  219, 
224,  227,  229,  235,  247,  254,  264, 
275,  278,  285,  315,  323,  342,  352, 
358,  359,  368,  389,  415 

Farther,  aU  the,  152 

Faulty  diction,  152 

First  sentence  in  a  letter,  impor- 
tance of,  338 

Footnotes,  directions  for  prepar- 
ing, 279-285 

Foreign  words,  166 

Form  letters,  323 

Fractions,  hyphen  with,  72 

Fragmentary  sentences,  174 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  9,  167,  382, 
383;    quoted,  350 

Friendly  letters,  360-368;  arrange- 
ment on  page,  361;  close  and 
signature,  361;  salutation,  363; 
stationery,  365;  specimens,  367 

General  truths,  tense  in  statements 

of,  116 
Gent,  152 
Gerund,  incorrect  use  of  without 

noun  of  agency,  104;     without 

possessive,  105 
Get  it,  152 

Good  use,  test  of,  330 
Gotten,  152 

Grammatical  difficulties,  84-125 
Grammatical   terms,   glossary  of, 

after  paragraph  125 


258 


INDEX 


Hackneyed  phrases,  150-151 ; 
caution  against  use  in  business 
letters,  337-338,  341 

Had  ought,  152 

Headings  of  letters,  303;  spacing 
of,  306 

Hence  not  a  coordinating  conjunc- 
tion, 177;  punctuation  before, 
in  compound  sentence,  54 

Homely  words,  value  of,  139,  155; 
list,  139 

Honorable,  310 

However  not  a  coordinating  con- 
junction, 177;  position  of  in 
clause,  224 

Huxley,  T.  H.,  155 

Hyphen,  use  of,  70,  71,  72 

Idioms,  122-125 

Imperative     sentences,     terminal 

punctuation  of,  43 
Indefinite  pronouns,  case  forms  of, 

87 
Indention    to    mark    paragraphs, 

208,  316 
Indexes,  273 

Industrial  Arts  Index,  245 
Infinitive  phrases,  punctuation  of, 

58-60 
Infinitive,  "split,"  184 
Initials,    identifying,    in    business 

letters,  319 
Intelligent,  intelligible,  152 
Interest   as    an    aid   to    memory, 

396 
Interrogative  pronouns,  case  forms 

of,  87 
Interrogative   sentences,   terminal 

punctuation  of,  44 
Introductions,  271,  272 
Introductory  sentences  of  letters, 

338;  specimens,  339 
Invitations,  formal,  368 
It,   number  of  verb  in  sentence 

introduced  by,  100 


Italics,  indicated  in  manuscript  by 
one  underline,  40;  with  titles  of 
books  and  names  of  ships,  74; 
with  foreign  words,  75;  for  em- 
phasis, 76 

It's,  68 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  155;  quoted, 
161 

Later,  latter,  152 

Letter-heads,  298-301 ;  unnecessary 

printing  on,  300;   dotted  line  for 

date  not   to  be  used   on,    300; 

specimens,  301 
Letter  paper,  297 
Letters.    See  Business  Letters  and 

Friendly  Letters 
Lie,  lay,  117 
Like,  misused  for  as  or  as  though, 

121,  152 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  9,  373 
Loan,  lend,  152 
Locate,  152 
Loose,  lose,  117 
Lots  of,  152 

Macaulay,  T,  B.,  155 

Manual  of  Style  (University  of 
Chicago  Press),  39 

Memorizing  an  address  usually  un- 
wise, 397-398 

Memory,  393-403 

Messrs.,  308 

Ministers,  how  addressed,  311 

Modern  Punctuation:  its  Utilities 
and  Conventions   (Summey),  39 

Modifiers,  should  stand  as  closely  as 
possible  to  word  modified,  184 

Moneys,  abbreviations  for,  26 

Moreover  not  a  coordinating  con- 
junction, 177 

Most,  152 

Namely,  punctuation  before  arid 
after,  53 


INDEX 


259 


"Natural  order,"  punctuation  of 
modifiers  in,  59-60 

Negative  letters,  to  be  avoided,  356 

Neither,  152;  number  of  verb  after, 
102 

None,  number  of  verb  after,  102 

Note-cards,  use  of  in  analyzing 
one's  ideas,  243,  379 

Notes,  value  of  system  in  taking, 
250;  "loose  leaf,"  or  card, 
system  best,  248,  250;  impor- 
tance of  putting  only  one  point  on 
each  card,  250,  252;  value  of  a 
general  heading  or  catchword, 
251;  "quotation"  and  "anal- 
ysis" notes,  252;  form  of  refer- 
ences, 253;  specimen  notes,  254 

Numbers,  27-30;  at  beginning  of 
sentence,  28;  when  expressed  in 
figures,  29;  when  spelled  in  full, 
30 

Off  of,  123,  152 

Omission  of  letters  indicated  by 
apostrophe,  69 

Only,  often  misplaced,  184 

Onto,  123,  152 

Order,  importance  of  in  para- 
graphs, 221 

Ordinal  numbers,  hyphen  with,  72 

Outlines,  257-264;  tests  for  proper 
subdivision  in,  258,  260;  use  of 
terms  "Introduction,"  "Body," 
and  "Conclusion,"  258;  illogical 
division  into  one  subpoint,  259; 
topical  outline,  258;  paragraph 
outline,  261-263;  complete-sen- 
tence outline,  264 

Over-punctuation,  63 

Palmer,  G.  H.,  156 
Paragraph  outline,  261-263 
Paragraphs,  207-235;    marked   by 
indention,  208;    dual  nature  of, 
211;    ideals  of,  213-229;    unity, 


214-220;  topic  sentence,  215-216; 
methods  of  development,  218; 
test  of  adequacy  of  development, 
219;  coherence,  221-227;  empha- 
sis, 228-229;  length  of  paragraphs 
in  articles  and  reports,  266-267; 
in  business  letters,  207,  212, 
231,  348-349;  caution  against 
paragraphs  of  one  sentence,  233; 
spacing  between  paragraphs  in 
business  letters,  316;  connecting 
finks  between  paragraphs,  268- 
269 

Parallel  structure  as  an  aid  to  sen- 
tence coherence,  194;  to  para- 
graph coherence,  225 

Parenthesis  marks,  use  of,  51,  61 

Parenthetical  expressions,  punc- 
tuation of,  61-62 

Participial  phrases,  punctuation  of, 
58-60;  with  force  of  prepositions 
or  conjunctions,  106 

Participles,  rules  for  correct  use  of, 
103,  190 

Particularization,  punctuation  of 
sentence  containing,  53 

Party,  152 

Passive  voice,  ineffective  use  of, 
200 

Personal  pronouns,  case  forms  of, 
87 

"Personal  style,"  336-342 

Persuasiveness  in  speech,  411-415 

Phone,  152 

Plan  as  an  aid  to  paragraph  coher- 
ence, 227;  in  articles  and  re- 
ports, 257-264;  in  letters,  344- 
347;   in  speeches,  389 

Position  of  modifiers  in  the  sen- 
tence as  a  factor  in  punctuation, 
59-60;  position  as  an  aid  to 
sentence  emphasis,  198 

Possessive  case,  punctuation  of,  65- 
68 

Practical,  practicable,  152 


260 


INDEX 


Precision  in  use  of  words,  136-138 

Prejudiced  against  (prejudicial  to), 
123 

Preposition  at  end  of  sentence,  125 

Prepositional  phrases,  punctuation 
of,  58-60 

Professor,  use  of  as  title  in  letters, 
312 

Pronouns,  85-94;  case  forms  of, 
87;  case  of,  determined  by  use 
in  sentence  or  clause,  87-94; 
special  difficulties  in  determining 
the  case  of  relative  pronouns,  92; 
case  after  than  or  a^,  94;  coher- 
ence violated  by  ambiguities  in 
the  use  of,  186-188;  possessive 
of  it  not  it's,  68 

Proof,  confused  with  evidence,  152 

Proper  names  ending  in  s,  posses- 
sive form  of,  67 

Proportion,  importance  of,  275 

Proposition,  152 

Proven,  152 

Punctuation,  36-83;  books  on,  39; 
marks  of,  40;  function  of,  41;  of 
sentence  as  a  whole,  42-45;  to 
indicate  internal  structure  of 
sentence,  46-63;  word  punctua- 
tion, 64-76;  of  quotations,  77-83 

Quite,  152 

Quotation  marks,  use  of,  to  set  off 

titles  of  articles,  etc.,  74;    to  set 

off  slang,  technical  terms,  etc., 

75 
Quotations,  direct,  punctuation  of, 

78-83;  indirect,  77 

Readers'  Guide,  245;    Supplement, 

245 
Reading  an  address  usually  unwise, 

398 
Reconcile  (to,  with),  123 
References  on  note-cards,  253 
Regards,  as  (in  regard  to),  123 


Relative  pronouns,  case  forms  of, 
87;  uses  of,  88;  special  diffi- 
culties in  determining  the  case 
of,  92-93 

Repetition  as  an  aid  to  emphasis, 
202;  ineffective,  203;  as  an  aid  to 
paragraph  coherence,  226 

Reports.   See  Articles  and  Reports 

Restrictive  and  non-restrictive 
modifiers,  punctuation  of,  58-60 

"Return  card,"  296 

Rise,  raise,  117 

Roget's  Thesaurus,  137 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  381,  383 

Said,  152 

"Sales-letter,"  every  letter  a,  353- 
358 

Sales-letters,  specimen  of,  359 

Salutations,  314 

Same,  152 

Scott,  Walter  Dill,  394,  411 

Sections,  division  of  an  article  into, 
270 

Self-cultivation  in  English  (Palmer), 
156 

Semicolon,  use  of,  48,  53,  54,  56, 
176,  177 

Sentences,  170-206;  definitions, 
170;  unity  of  destroyed  by 
punctuation  of  dependent  clauses 
or  phrases  as  complete  sentences, 
174;  by  faulty  punctuation  be 
tween  main  clauses,  176-177;  by 
inclusion  of  unrelated  ideas  in 
same  sentence,  180;  by  failure 
to  subordinate  minor  ideas,  181- 
183;  coherence  of,  weakened  by 
misplaced  modifiers,  184-185; 
by  ambiguous  pronouns,  186- 
188;  by  ungrammatical  modi- 
fiers, 189-193;  by  shifts  in  con- 
struction, 194-195;  emphasis  of, 
secured  by  giving  most  impor- 
tant ideas  most  important  posi- 


INDEX 


261 


tions,  198;  by  use  of  fresh  and 
vivid  words,  199;  by  use  of  ac- 
tive voice,  200;  by  condensation, 
201;  by  repetition,  202 

Sentence  structure,  principles  of, 
how  far  modified  in  business 
writing,  205-206 

Sequence  of  tenses,  113-116 

Series,  coordinate,  punctuation  of, 
56 

Set,  sit,  117 

Shall  and  will,  general  uses  of,  108; 
in  questions,  110 

Should  and  would,  uses  of  in  simple 
statements,  109;  in  conditional 
clauses.  111;  special  uses  of,  112 

Signatures  in  business  letters,  318 

Simplicity  and  directness,  value  of, 
163 

Simplified  spelling,  21 ;  first  list  of 
300  words  issued  by  the  Ameri- 
can Simplified  Spelling  Board,  21 

Slang,  143-149;  indicated  by  itahcs 
or  quotes,  75 

So  not  a  coordinating  conjunction, 
177;  punctuation  before,  in  com- 
pound sentence,  54 

Spacing  in  business  letters,  306 

Spelling,  15-21;   simplified,  21 

Spencer,  Herbert,  201 

"  Split  comparison, "  195 

"Split  infinitive,"  184 

"Stage-fright,"  404-406 

States,  abbreviations  for  names  of, 
26;  caution  against  using  on  en- 
velopes of  business  letters,  295 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  155 

Subordination  of  unimportant 
ideas  in  a  sentence,  181-183 

Sub-titles  as  an  aid  to  clearness  in 
articles  and  reports,  270 

Such,  152 

Suggestion,  importance  of,  374, 
413 

Summey,  George,  39 


Supplement  to  Readers'  Guide,  245 
Suspicion,  152 
Swift,  Jonathan,  381 
S5nion3m[is,  value  of  studying,  137 

Talking  in  pubHc,  369-415 

Technical  terms,  166;  use  of  ital- 
ics or  quotes  to  indicate,  75 

Technical  vocabulary,  value  of, 
140 

Tenses,  sequence  of,  113-116 

Than,  case  of  pronouns  after,  94 

That  (as  adverb),  152 

Then  not  a  coordinating  conjunc- 
tion, 177 

There,  number  of  verb  in  sentences 
introduced  by,  100 

Therefore  not  a  coordinating  con- 
junction, 177;  punctuation  be- 
fore, in  compound  sentences,  54 

Tired  (of,  with),  123 

Titles,  military,  academic,  etc.,  ab- 
breviations for,  26;  of  books  and 
articles,  capitalization  of,  33; 
punctuation  of,  74 

Topical  outUne,  258 

Topic  sentence,  215-216;  in  busi- 
ness writing,  216 

Transition  in  paragraphs,  222-223; 
between  paragraphs,   268-269 

Transpire,  152 

Trite  expressions,  150-151 

Unity  in  the  sentence,  172-183; 
destroyed  through  inclusion  of 
too  little  in  the  sentence,  174- 
175;  through  inclusion  of  too 
much  in  the  sentence,  176- 
180;  through  improper  subordi- 
nation, 181-183;  in  the  para- 
graph, 214-220,  231;  in  articles 
and  reports,  274 

Useless  phrases  in  business  letters, 

w  341 

"Use  no  unnecessary  words,"  386 


262 


INDEX 


Verbosity  in  speaking,  385 

Verbs,  agreement  with  subject  in 
number  and  person,  96;  number 
when  subject  is  a  collective  noun, 
97;  after  expressions  introduced 
by  together  mth,  as  well  as, 
etc.,  98;  in  sentences  intro- 
duced by  it  or  there,  100; 
with  compound  subject,  101; 
after  ea^h,  either,  everybody,  nei- 
ther, none,  etc.,  102;  participial 
and  gerund  forms  of,  103-107; 
shall  and  will,  etc.,  108-112; 
sequence  of  tenses,  113-116; 
principal  parts,  117 

Vividness  as  an  aid  to  emphasis, 
199 

Vocabulary,  ideal  of  a  good,  130- 
140;  shortcomings  of  the  aver- 
age, 141-152;  methods  of  enlarg- 
ing, 153-158,  392;  adaptation  of, 
to  subject  and  reader,  159-169; 
for  speaking,  390-392 


Voice,  suggestions  concerning  the 
use  of,  407-409 

Wait  for  (not  on),  123, 

Want  in,  134 

Weights  and  measures,  abbrevia- 
tions for,  26 

Wherefore  not  a  coordinating  con- 
junction, 177 

Which,  to  be  avoided  as  an  adjec- 
tive, 124 

While,  misuse  of,  120 

Who  and  whom.,  confusion  of,  92- 
93 

Without  (as  conjunction),   152 

Woolley,  E.  C,  quoted,  17 

Wordiness,  illustrations  of,  168 

Word  punctuation,  64-76 

Words,  present,  reputable,  and 
national  use  of,  132-135 

Writing  as  an  aid  to  thinking,  377 

"You-attitude,"  the,  324-335 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
TmS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


ociijm^Mi 


IJOAH  PCPT. 


LD  21-100m-12,'43  (8796s) 


YB  69145 


